{"id":198,"date":"2017-02-05T15:07:03","date_gmt":"2017-02-05T06:07:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp\/?p=198"},"modified":"2017-02-27T19:47:50","modified_gmt":"2017-02-27T10:47:50","slug":"%e5%88%80%e5%89%a3%e3%81%ae%e6%80%9d%e6%83%b3","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp\/en\/2017\/02\/05\/%e5%88%80%e5%89%a3%e3%81%ae%e6%80%9d%e6%83%b3\/","title":{"rendered":"The Ideology of T\u014dken (swords)"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"katana\"<\/p>\n

The University of Tsukuba Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Studies Associate Professor Sakai Toshinobu<\/strong><\/h5>\n

<\/p>\n

Prologue 1
The Culture of the “Sword” (\u5263) and the “Way” (\u9053)<\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. The Way of the Sword<\/h4>\n

Read as kend\u014d<\/em>, the characters used to write this word are  \u5263 (tsurugi<\/em> \/ ken<\/em> – sword), and \u9053 (michi<\/em> \/ d\u014d<\/em> \u2013 way, path), take on the meaning of “the way of the sword”. Perhaps it is here that one can begin to see the complexity of kend\u014d<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Nowadays, there are many people who train hard in the art of kend\u014d<\/em> throughout Japan, and in numerous countries worldwide. Regardless of age or gender, enthusiasts train with a kind of “obsession” or “passion” seeking improvement in the art of kend\u014d<\/em>. What is it exactly that attracts people to practise as hard as they do? I would like to consider this issue from a closer perspective. <\/p>\n

Practitioners of kend\u014d<\/em> tend to have a strong aversion to comparisons made between kend\u014d<\/em> and modern sports based on the commonly espoused notion that kend\u014d<\/em> is a “Way” or “journey” \u2013 a sentiment I believe most (kend\u014d<\/em>) people have come across before. Is it the “journey” aspect that explains the “passion” with which people undertake their kend\u014d<\/em> training?   <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Culture of the “Way” <\/h4>\n

In truth, the term “Way” (\u9053) is somewhat vague, and is therefore difficult to interpret with many possible meanings. <\/p>\n

When read by itself, this character implies “the passage \/path one takes”. In other words, it can refer to the “the path (thought \/reasoning) one should traverse as a human being”. Additionally, it can denote the journey of one’s specialist field; for instance, in sad\u014d<\/em> (\u8336\u9053) this character refers to the expertise involved in the tea ceremony.  Moreover, it can be used to express an “essential point” or “secret” (on the journey to enlightenment), and terms such as “to have reached the path \/Way” is also alluded to this interpretation. This character is used in the words shint\u014d<\/em> (\u795e\u9053) and butsud\u014d<\/em> (\u4ecf\u9053) (Buddhism), and  refers to the religious teachings of the gods or Buddha. An additional yet more complex interpretation is found within the ancient Chinese philosophy regarding the “great principle of the Universe”. <\/p>\n

I will not analyse all of the possible connotations, suffice it to say there are many interpretations for this character. The difficulty of this term is found when certain circumstances infer different meanings, and it is challenging to decipher these individually. It entails a variety of background meanings, and is highly ambiguous. (The character \u9053 will be referred to hereafter by its on<\/em> reading as michi<\/em>).<\/p>\n

The reason there are so many interpretations of this character is due to the sheer amount of cultural associations it has. Moreover, the various interpretations or ways of expressing the word michi<\/em> are an indication of the width and breadth of the cultures in which it features. Accordingly, the “passion” displayed by the people who undertake the journey of kendo<\/em>,  not only in Japan but around the world, may be referred to as a part of the culture of kend\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Thus, the character michi<\/em>, denoting a journey or Way, is a useful term for expressing background cultural qualities, and I believe it is used as such.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Cultural Attributes of the “Tsurugi<\/em>”<\/h4>\n

Although some validation has been given of the ‘cultural nature’ associated to the term michi<\/em>, it is also clear that the ambiguous interpretations of this character contribute to a certain degree of ambiguity. <\/p>\n

There are many cultural pursuits that incorporate the “Way”, such as the physical activities of ky\u016bd\u014d<\/em>, Judo and karate-d\u014d<\/em> etc., in addition to endeavours such as sad\u014d<\/em> (tea ceremony) and kad\u014d<\/em> (flower arranging). When used in the word kend\u014d<\/em> (\u5263\u9053), the original cultural sentiment is somewhat highlighted by the addition of the character for sword (\u5263\u2014ken<\/em> \/ tsurugi<\/em>) which usually refers to a double-edged straight blade. (NB \u2013 The character \u5263 will be referred to by its on reading as “tsurugi<\/em>”).<\/p>\n

In Japan, the tsurugi<\/em> (double-edged straight sword) harnesses a time-honoured and sacred ideology. In fact, these principles are not limited to the world of kend\u014d<\/em> or kenjutsu<\/em>, as they extend to political and social systems, faith and religion, and diverse range of social features. As such, it contains a wide, deep, multilayered world of spirituality focused around the concept of the tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

This is an idea I term the “tsurugi-no-kannen<\/em>”. I believe this is where the depth of meaning behind kend\u014d exists, as well as explaining the “passion” with which many practitioners carry out their kend\u014d training. Furthermore, considering the vast cultural sense implied by the term “the Way (\u9053)”, perhaps this “concept of the tsurugi<\/em>” can help to pinpoint the unique aspects of kend\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

So far, I have briefly examined the tsurugi<\/em>. From here, I would like to widen the scope of this essay slightly and explore the idea of the “t\u014d<\/em>–<\/em>ken<\/em>”\u2014where “t\u014d<\/em>” refers to the character \u5200, and is also read as katana; <\/em>and “ken<\/em>” refers to \u5263, also read as tsurugi<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Prologue 2
\n The Tsurugi and the Katana<\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

“To discipline the human character through the application of the principles of the sword.”<\/strong><\/p>\n

Established by the All Japan Kendo Federation, the opening words of this section quote the “Concept of Kend\u014d”. As a matter of fact, it is the “ideology of the t\u014d-ken<\/em>” that, although somewhat equivocal in modern kend\u014d<\/em>, exists within that one sentence.  <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

1. The Tsurugi and the Katana<\/h4>\n

The word t\u014dken<\/em> is a commonly used, and despite the inclusive nature of the word, the t\u014d<\/em> \/ katana<\/em> (\u5200), and ken<\/em> \/tsurugi<\/em> (\u5263) have some important differences. T\u014d<\/em> \/ katana<\/em> refers to a one-edged sword, and ken<\/em> \/ tsurugi<\/em> to the double-edged sword.  Furthermore, with its curved blade the t\u014d<\/em> \/ katana<\/em>, or so called Nihon-t\u014d<\/em>, used in the mid-Heian period onwards is also written as \u592a\u5200(tachi<\/em>); whereas the older style, straight and one-edged blade was referred to with the characters \u5927\u5200(tachi<\/em>), note that both sets of characters can be read as tachi<\/em>.<\/p>\n

The katana<\/em> was a key weapon for a long time, and due to its history it is a treasured item with a rich philosophy. On the other hand, the tsurugi<\/em> was not necessarily a practical weapon, yet has been a valued relic in the realm of Japanese faith and religion from the outset. This is apparent when one considers tsurugi<\/em> that are stored and worshiped in Shint\u014d shrines as containing the spirit of deities.  <\/p>\n

Generally speaking, the tsurugi<\/em> is seen as more sacred than the katana; a point that is particularly evident in the “Concept of Kendo”, where “sword” is written as tsurugi<\/em> (\u5263). This is what I mean by the “conception of the sword” (tsurugi<\/em> no kannen<\/em>). And is the ultimate characteristic of the “ideals of the sword (token<\/em>)” in Japan. Let us now turn to kend\u014d<\/em> with this in mind. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Tsurugi and the Katana in modern Kend\u014d<\/h4>\n

Modern day kendo<\/em> is conducted with the use of shinai<\/em> (a bamboo sword). However, I have always been instructed to “train as if I were holding an actual blade”, and I am sure that this teaching is familiar to many kend\u014d<\/em> practitioners. <\/p>\n

In modern day kend\u014d<\/em>, there is a resolute idea that one should imagine using an actual katana<\/em> in their training. I believe this is evident through the development of techniques that recognize the monouchi<\/em> (correct cutting area) and the hasuji<\/em> (correct cutting edge) of the sword, and through the importance placed on the development of correct execution of techniques in kata<\/em> (set forms). However, the purpose of the kend\u014d<\/em> journey (sh\u016bgy\u014d<\/em>) is not to acquire the skills to be able to kill another person with a katana<\/em>, but like the opening sentence to this section suggests, it is to “develop one’s character”. That is, the aim of one’s purpose should be consistently directed to achieving a higher standard (of human character). As such, rather than the term “t\u014d-d\u014d<\/em>” (\u5200\u9053), this pursuit is referred to as “ken-d\u014d<\/em>” (\u5263\u9053). <\/p>\n

At a glimpse this may appear to be contradictory, however that is not the case. Perhaps better considered as a symbolic turn of phrase, such an idea reveals the sacred value of the tsurugi<\/em>, and its index in the term “the ideology of the t\u014dken<\/em> (\u5200\u5263)”.\u3000 <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Tsurugi and Katana Seen in Early-Modern Kenjutsu<\/h4>\n

\"setsuninto_katsujinken\" <\/p>\n

Although the practices that regulate modern kend\u014d<\/em> (in terms of techniques for using a katana<\/em>) are not necessarily the same as those established for kenjutsu<\/em> of the Edo period, it can be said that, from the point of view of the importance placed on attitude when handling a sword, the ethos kenjutsu<\/em> from previous eras still has an enormous influence on modern kend\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Among the scrolls of the Shinkage-ry\u016b, one of the kenjutsu-ry\u016bha<\/em> (swordsmanship schools) that is strongly represented in modern kendo<\/em>, is the Heih\u014d-kadensho<\/em>. Written by Yagy\u016b Munenori<\/em> in the ninth year of Kan’ei (1632), this is a famous work that still profoundly inspires the practice of kend\u014d<\/em> today. The following is a passage from this manuscript:<\/p>\n

As a consequence of one evil man’s actions, ten thousand men may suffer. When that one man is killed, then thousand men may be spared. Therefore, the sword (katana) that kills thus becomes the sword (ken) that gives life.”   <\/p>\n

The notion that “to kill the man who causes ten thousand men to suffer will thereby save these men”, describes the well-known philosophy “katsunin-ken<\/em>” (\u6d3b\u4eba\u5263) or “life-giving sword”. It is through this line of thought that Yagy\u016b insists on the notion that the act of killing one man may be justified if it is for the higher purpose of saving many. Putting the logic of this reasoning aside, the point I would like to make is that the object used to kill a man is the katana<\/em>, yet the sword that gives life is the tsurugi<\/em>. This clearly distinguishes significance behind the katana<\/em> vis-\u00e0-vis<\/em> the tsurugi<\/em>.  Where the violent act of cutting a man down is symbolised by the katana<\/em>, it is the tsurugi<\/em> that represents a higher peaceful ideal.<\/p>\n

According to the values system in which modern kend\u014d<\/em> operates today, the techniques are based on the katana <\/em>(\u5200), and the ultimate goal of attaining the higher ideal of “human development” is implied by the tsurugi<\/em> (\u5263).  We have now arrived at the doors of early-modern kenjutsu<\/em>, and it is now that I can introduce the main issue to be investigated in this essay. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Body, Mind and Sword
\nThe Gateway to Spiritual Culture
\n<\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

The cultural aspects that attract people to the kend\u014d<\/em> today are, to a large extent, those of Edo period kenjutsu<\/em>.  Incidentally, during this era it was not common to attach the character michi<\/em> (\u9053) to techniques concerning the tsurugi<\/em> (\u5263), this is most certainly a development of the modern era. <\/p>\n

Where the word “civilisation” implies a more tangible concept, it is the word “culture” that identifies with both material and spiritual ideas. So when referring to the culture of kend\u014d<\/em>, it may be suggested that one particular characteristic is that of a “spiritual culture”. As such, it was the “ideology of t\u014dken<\/em>” that came to play a significant part in the formation of this spirituality in modern age kenjutsu<\/em>. With this in mind, I would now like to work towards clarifying this aspect of kend\u014d<\/em> cultural aspects. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Mind as the Essence of the Body<\/h4>\n

\n I suspect that many people have experienced some kind of anxiety or fright that has rendered them motionless for a moment. Even nowadays in kend\u014d<\/em>, we are instructed in the old teaching concerning the four “illnesses of mind”: “surprise”, “fear”, “doubt”, and “confusion” (also known as the “four ailments of the heart”). Such psychological matters pertaining to the mind \/ heart are still considered to be of paramount importance today. <\/p>\n

Still, traditional kenjutsu<\/em> is very different to modern kend\u014d<\/em>, particularly when one considers shinken-sh\u014dbu<\/em> or mortal combat. Considering the act of holding kamae<\/em> (position) with the live-blade katana, skin trembling with fear as both put their life on the line to engage in battle, undoubtedly one’s state of mind was a critical concern.    <\/p>\n

In early-modern kenjutsu<\/em>, much attention was given to the mind as being central to the  body and action. This line of thought follows the notion that, for good or for bad, the body draws heavily from the mind, and the mind acts to direct the reactions and responses of the body. <\/p>\n

In the first year of Kansei (1789), Natsume Jiroemon of the Itt\u014d-ry\u016b authored the manuscript Kenjutsu kudensho.<\/em> In it he states “The most important thing about a person is his mind.” Furthermore, in Yagy\u016b Munenori’s Heih\u014d kadensho<\/em>, the same sentiment is referenced incessantly. Similar comments can also be seen in the scrolls of the Jigen-ry\u016b. It is certain that this mode of thought was not at all uncommon in early-modern kenjutsu<\/em>, and issues concerning the mind-body relationship were principal in the study of swordsmanship. <\/p>\n

This is a good juncture to deliberate on the often stated “spiritual characteristics” of kenjutsu<\/em> (kend\u014d<\/em>). <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Sword that Defeats the Self and the Enemy<\/h4>\n

\n How did swordsmen address issues of the mind? In the first year of the Tenmei era (1781), Kubo Shichibee Kinoyukihide of the Jigen-ry\u016b wrote the Jigen-ry\u016b kikigaki kikkin-roku<\/em> where he states the following:<\/p>\n

“Although the tachi (\u592a\u5200) can be used to cut and kill one’s enemy, one must first kill the three ailments in his own heart; and only when his heart has become strong, clear, right, and vivid should he pick up his sword and kill his enemy.” <\/p>\n

The three ailments mentioned in this exert stem from Buddhist teachings regarding worldly desires or passions, specifically greed, anger and foolishness, and are generally understood as evil or idle thoughts. In other words, although it is obviously the enemy who is the target of one’s cut with the katana (tachi),  before this it is the evils inside one’s self that must be smited. <\/p>\n

A similar sentiment is displayed within the action of “onken<\/em>” which is performed in the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b. Having taken a ready stance for engagement (kamae<\/em>), the sword is held in front of the chest. Then, by turning the right wrist inwards, the blade of the sword is directed towards the self. It is said that this movement signifies the ridding of impurities within, and only after having cleansed the self can one engage his enemy. Over and above all, this establishes the idea that one must utilise the two swords (t\u014dken<\/em>\u2014\u5200\u5263) to defeat both inner and outer demons. Further, as it is the mind that directs the actions of the body, failing to properly manage the problems of the mind will result in an inability to execute the ideal technique. <\/p>\n

This is the technical aspect of the idea of “directing the sword at the self and at the enemy.” As previously discussed, of the two swords, the single edged katana<\/em> and the double edged tsurugi<\/em>, it was the tsurugi<\/em> that is historically considered sacred.  Until here, it has been the katana<\/em> that has been discussed on the surface (from the point of view of it being referred to as tachi<\/em> \u592a\u5200 in the Jigen-ry\u016b scrolls, and as the katana<\/em> or tachi<\/em> that is actually used in Shint\u014d-ry\u016b). Yet, delving even deeper, we find that these are conceptually the ideals of surrounding the tsurugi<\/em>. Regarding the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b’s use of the katana<\/em> in the onken<\/em> practice, let us know turn our attention the text Bushi-kun<\/em>, a work that was authored in the fifth year of Sh\u014dtoku (1715) by Izawa Banry\u014d<\/em>, as it further expresses this concept:  “The reiken<\/em> (spiritual sword) reveals one’s resolve. It gives strength and has no want. Internally, it destroys voracity, the enemy of the mind. Externally, it rescinds evildoers.”  <\/p>\n

Later referenced in the scrolls of the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b, this is an extremely important passage that explains the reiken<\/em> or “sacred (tsurugi<\/em>) sword” as something that works to expel evils within oneself, whilst still being able to cut down an external foe. This is clearly a technique that is based on the ideology of the tsurugi<\/em>. Therefore, it can be said that the use of the katana<\/em> is conceptually based on the ideology of the tsurugi, and that the actual techniques of the katana<\/em> are underpinned on the ideals of the tsurugi<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Conceptually, the idea of the tsurugi<\/em>’s double-edge is significant. The blade is directed at both the enemy and the self, which is highly symbolic. The tsurugi<\/em> was viewed as a sword that could conquer not only an external enemy, but also one’s own internal demons. It was the sword that could be used to overcome the complicated yet critical “weaknesses of the mind”.  It was “the sword that could cut the self, and then the enemy”. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. The Tsurugi Symbolic of the Mind<\/h4>\n

\n Although it may be possible to cut and kill a living enemy, the other adversary in need of subduing, the evils of the internal mind, cannot be physically attacked. This is extremely conceptual, and cannot be accomplished with conventional technique. Thus, the solution advanced in early-modern kenjutsu<\/em> was to seek and realise the “image” of using the sacred tsurugi<\/em> sword. One work that confronts this issue is Matsuura Seizan’s Kenk\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

“There is sword within the self, and it is called the riken (\u5229\u5263- ‘the sword of reason’). One must not kill a man with the sword of the gods. Use it to rid malice and spite from one’s heart. This is the riken of the mind.” <\/p>\n

This passage attempts to explain the notion of overcoming evil (malice and spite) within one’s heart and mind by way of the “riken<\/em> of the mind” (kokoro-no-riken<\/em>), which put simply, is the mind itself. The ability to overcome or cut down the evils in the mind is only achievable through the mind. This capability resides within the consciousness, and although somewhat difficult to grasp, is expressed as one’s riken<\/em> (\u5229\u5263). Thus, the character tsurugi<\/em> (\u5263) used in this word acts to represent the mind. This line of thought where the sword is understood to represent the heart and mind, can also be seen in written works such as Taiaki<\/em> authored by Takuan S\u014dh\u014d, a man said to have had much influence on the Shinkage-ry\u016b.  It could also be said that for a mind that cannot be contained, it is through the concepts of the sacred tsurugi<\/em> sword, that the symbolic sense of techniques can be found.  <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

\n The argument made in Matsura Seizan’s Kenk\u014d<\/em> regarding the sword that represents the mind as “the sword of the gods” (shinbutsu-no-ken<\/em>) is very interesting. Based on the premise that the image of the tsurugi<\/em> is founded in Shint\u014d-Budhhist thought, this concept is an extremely important one in the Japanese ideology of the token<\/em>, something that will require more discussion later in this article. <\/p>\n

To recap, the ideas we have established are: 1) the mind\/heart directs the techniques performed by the body; 2) therefore, for a technique to cut down\/defeat an opponent one must, at the same time, overcome the evils inside the self; 3) the object that governs the heart\/mind is the heart\/mind itself; and very importantly, 4) techniques should be performed with an image and ideals of the tsurugi<\/em> sword at their root. <\/p>\n

Development of the movement culture of kend\u014d<\/em> becomes clearer through these examples concerning the philosophy of the tsurugi<\/em> sword and the extensive part such a concept plays in the relationship between ‘body’ and ‘mind’. The issues discussed to this point have concerned the mind \/ spirit required of techniques to confront an opponent, something that may be considered the ‘gateway’ to the spirituality of kenjutsu<\/em>. From this point, my discussion will focus on a curious development regarding this facet.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Development and Background of Spirituality<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

The issue of spirituality juxtaposing with technique is not unusual in thought surrounding physical activity, or in discussions concerning bud\u014d<\/em>. In Western culture, although it is customary for physical activity to be conducted separately from issues concerning spirituality, Japanese bud\u014d<\/em> attempts to deal with these matters in unison. Such an approach has been termed shinshin-ichinyo<\/em> (the unity of body and mind), and may be considered as one of the irreplaceable characteristics of bud\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

The phrase shinshin-ichinyo<\/em> is not, however, referring to ‘the body’ and ‘the mind’ as the same thing. This line of thought understands the body and the mind as separate entities, but that one generally directs the other. This is what emphasises the closeness of their relationship, hence the use of the wording “unity” of body and mind. The way of solving the issues presented by shinshin-ichinyo<\/em> can be reached through harnessing an image of the tsurugi<\/em> sword, and this can be considered as one characteristic of the art of kend\u014d<\/em> (kenjutsu<\/em>). However, one might argue that there are differing perceptions of the body-mind relationship, and when considered on a broad scale, it is an issue faced by many other physical cultures. Yet in the case of Japanese kenjutsu<\/em>, these perceptions followed a peculiar path, and this will be investigated from here. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Transition to Ethical and Moral Spirituality<\/h4>\n

To explain what is meant by a peculiar development, let us now focus in on a verse from the Jigen-ry\u016b kikigaki-kikkin-roku<\/em> scroll. It reads;<\/p>\n

“The students of this school who undertake sh\u016bgy\u014d (a journey of ascetic practice), should harness the riken of the mind; and, even for the most fleeting of moments, must avoid having the three poisons of greed, anger, and foolishness in their heart. These must be purged…”<\/p>\n

A similar passage was quoted earlier. However, the earlier example referred to the non-ideal state of mind, that is overcoming the three ailments of the heart with the riken<\/em>, was for the purpose of cutting down and defeating an enemy. As the following passage indicates, there is a difference in nuance of the ultimate goal:<\/p>\n

“\u2026This leads into the speech and actions one’s conduct in daily life. Even if a good deed goes unnoticed, one should not become disheartened. Too much woefulness leads to greed. If one learns a skill and cannot perform it better than another person, he should not feel regret. Too much regret leads to anger. Even if one is destitute, he should not lament. This will only lead to idle complaining. In the pursuit of knowledge one should conduct his studies correctly, and not take etiquette for granted. More than learning the skills to defeat an enemy who may oppose us, one must learn the righteous way of the sword that can defeat the three harmful poisons of the mind that governs the actions of the body.”<\/p>\n

Separated from technique, here we see a clear focus on the issues concerning the mind and spirituality. What is more, this discussion of temperament is not concerned with the state of mind one should have when engaging an enemy in combat. It pertains to one’s decency as a human being. Furthermore, rather than concentrating on the extraordinary experience of placing one’s life on the line, it refers to the mentality imbued in the moral and ethical concerns of daily life, suggesting that the realisation of this attitude is the “riken<\/em> of the mind”. <\/p>\n

The correct way to live as a warrior was a major concern at the time. The ideal image of the bushi<\/em> was influenced by Confucius thought. I do not wish to digress too much, suffice it to say that the notion of the essence of way of the bushi<\/em> was found in the ideals of the t\u014dken<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Symbolic T\u014dken of the Bushi<\/h4>\n

In medieval times, expressions such as “yumiya toru mi<\/em>” (bearer of the bow and arrow) referred to the professional warriors. Later on, it was the t\u014dken<\/em> that became the symbol of the warrior. In the manuscript Gorin-no-sho<\/em> (1645) of Miyamoto Musashi, this perception is succinctly described in the following passage. <\/p>\n

“The fact that those of bushi status carry two swords at their waist need not be indorsed in writing. In our land, whether one is aware of it or not, to wear a sword is the Way of the bushi.” <\/p>\n

In the Rikata d\u014dji-ky\u014d<\/em>, a scroll of the Rikata Ichi-ry\u016b, it states, <\/p>\n

“The child of a bushi should mature by the virtues of the mamori-gatana(literally the sword of protection) to be a warrior. The child of a samurai must also wear the sword in order to be called a warrior, and learn that being a warrior begins with the virtues of the sword.”<\/p>\n

The bushi<\/em> would conduct themselves based on the virtues of the symbolic t\u014dken<\/em>, in order to become (the ideal) warrior. From this, it was not strength as a combatant that was sought per se, but as it was the virtues of the sword that lead to development of the human character, it was simply a matter of whether he prodigious as a person. Thus, it was the ideals of the t\u014dken<\/em> that influenced the everyday morals and ethics of warrior society.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. The T\u014dken Symbolic of Governance<\/h4>\n

The struggles to find solutions to the surprise, fear, doubt and confusion that plague the mind when facing against an enemy were considered a very natural part of the journey when studying the techniques of the sword. These matters of the mind were also converted into a system of everyday ethics and morality. At first glance, this is certainly an interesting phenomenon. However based on the numerous historical documents that espoused such ideals, is was certainly not unusual, as somewhat typical of early-modern kenjutsu<\/em>. <\/p>\n

How did this development come arise? On the face of it kenjutsu<\/em> in a practical sense was intended to defeat an enemy; yet in actuality, most of the Edo period was marked by peace, and the majority of bushi<\/em> lived their entire lives without seeing battle. Thus, when considering the way a warrior of the time should conduct himself, if he were simply a brute skilled in the techniques to kill, surely he would be eschewed without being able to govern effectively. <\/p>\n

For close to seven hundred years following the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu<\/em> (shogunate<\/em>), bushi<\/em> administered the country. They formed an elite group who sought to maintain their position of power. As a matter of course, bushi<\/em> did not always operate as heavies, and sought to refine more humanistic traits. Through their ability with the sword, they were able to develop such values, and it was by channelling the ideals of t\u014dken<\/em> that they cultivated a moralistic spirituality that could be implemented in every aspect of their lives.<\/p>\n

\"heihokadensho\"<\/p>\n

Therefore, with the addition of the practical aspects of the t\u014dken<\/em>, martial art experts sought a set of morals in order to live by, and at the base of this development was a deep affiliation to ideas of governance. The t\u014dken<\/em> was a symbol of government, an idea can be seen in the following excerpt from Yagy\u016b Munenori’s Heih\u014d kandensho<\/em>: <\/p>\n

“To govern a world in disorder, one should use the setsunin-t\u014d (\u6bba\u4eba\u5200\u2014death-dealing blade). Yet when one already maintains control, it is the katsunin-ken (\u6d3b\u4eba\u5263\u2014life-giving sword) that one must carry.”<\/p>\n

From this we can see the important differences in the philosophy of t\u014d<\/em> (\u5200 or katana<\/em>) and ken (\u5263 or tsurugi<\/em>). For the meantime, however, it is evident that aspects of both t\u014d<\/em> and ken were considered when governing the country. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

Evoking ideas of the t\u014dken<\/em> as guiding principles to govern the country was not because it was seen as symbolic of the bushi<\/em>. In fact, it is the other way around. Although this point will be looked at in more detail later on, the t\u014dken<\/em> (particularly the ken<\/em> \/ tsurugi<\/em>) was symbolic of governance since ancient times. As such, this symbolism came to be associated with the bushi<\/em> as the eventual rulers of Japan, and ultimately guided the directions of their spirituality. <\/p>\n

In Musashi’s Gorin-no-sho<\/em>, there is a passage that clearly elucidates this progression. It states:<\/p>\n

“Through the virtues of the tachi (\u592a\u5200) one can manage the world and the self; and so the tachi forms the basis of strategy.”<\/p>\n

In this section I have investigated the development and backdrop of bushi<\/em> spiritualty. In summary, the spirituality of kenjutsu<\/em> concerned ethics, and this transformed into system of morality for daily life. The concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em> played an important role in this. The concept of ningen-keisei <\/em>(cultivation of the human character) in modern kend\u014d<\/em> is connected to this flow. These ideas relate directly “the concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>” seen on the surface of modern kend\u014d<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Magic of the Tsurugi<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

Discussion to this point has focused on the issues of the mind when facing an enemy, and the consequent development of a system of morals and ethics in relation to the spirituality of these matters. I believe that the comparatively modern style of kend\u014d<\/em> that we engage in today has much to do with the concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>. The discussion from here will concentrate on a slightly uncertain subject. Having become accustomed to contemporary perceptions, moderns are usually sceptical to the notion of ‘magic’ in kenjutsu<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Jujutsu (\u546a\u8853) \u00ad\u00ad\u00ad\u00ad or “magic art” is the practice of sorcery. As a child watching cartoons or anime<\/em>, one may fantasise about the benefits of being able to use sorcery, but this “unscientific” imagination tends to disappear with age. However, kenjutsu<\/em> back in history were more open to such ideas, and did everything they could to gain an advantage. In their early-modern world of kenjutsu<\/em>, ‘magic’ did exist. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. Magic Arts for Evil Spirits<\/h4>\n

The issue being discussed in this section is certainly odd by modern values, even though we still pray to deities if we have a strong desire for something. One could consider there to be a sense of something magical underpinning this position as well. “Victory seems impossible. There is trepidation at every turn. Yet I must go to battle. All I can do is wait for death.” If ever there were times like these (and certainly in times of war there were), warriors undoubtedly sought something to give them and edge. Magic was one source of power they tried to draw on. <\/p>\n

In the ancient period, there was a legendary sorcerer called Abe no Seimei. This seems nonsensical from a contemporary perspective. Yet, in a situation where one is faced with imminent death, it must have made perfect sense to believe in a greater magical power. I am certainly no mystic, but I do believe that life cannot be completely explained by rational theory. Above all, analysis of historical documents shows that magic played an important part in the loves of warriors.  <\/p>\n

Although only a simple explanation can be given in the scope of this paper, I refer to the phenomenon of “magic arts to expel evil spirits”. That is, a method of sorcery that is said to cast out evil. Very famous as a sword master, Tsukahara Bokuden founded the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b in which magical teachings were integral, and the secret technique of the school was highly magical. <\/p>\n

In the 13th year of Temp\u014d (1842), \u014ctsuki Sekihei authored a book about the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b called Heih\u014d jikansh\u014d<\/em>. In it he refers to this exclusive ‘supernatural’ technique as “Mitama no tsurugi majifuru no tachi<\/em>” (\u970a\u5263\u546a\u632f\u4e43\u592a\u5200). The characters alone may evoke a feeling of the supernatural, yet further investigation of this set of characters reveals the following meaning:<\/p>\n

“This technique is to ward off away evil spirits. It casts a spell on the opponent so that they can be controlled, and evil can be expelled without a drop of blood on the sword.” <\/p>\n

This clearly shows that, apart from the sword techniques that were utilised to defeat an enemy, there were also techniques based on a form of enchantment to banish evil spirits. Unfortunately, only mystical spells along with a record of the basic movement of the sword exists, without any detailed description of the technique. (Incidentally, in places such as Kashima Jing\u016b Shrine, there are reproductions of the Heih\u014d jikansh\u014d<\/em> on display.) It is a shame that the actual methodology of these techniques have been lost over time. However, despite the on-going secretive nature in which the kenjutsu<\/em> schools conducted their activities, it is still a wonder that any form of these enigmatic articles remain in written form today at all. In any case, the important point for us to remember is the fact that a ‘magic art’ concerning evil spirits did exist in early-modern kenjutsu<\/em>. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. Divination and the Sword<\/h4>\n

The tsurugi<\/em> plays a very important part in this belief of magic arts and evil spirits. The use of the tsurugi<\/em> in is said to be age-old, and is mentioned in the ancient myths recorded in the Kojiki<\/em> (Records of Ancient Matters) and the Nihon-shoki<\/em> (Chronicles of Japan). <\/p>\n

Even recorded in the Heih\u014d jikansh\u014d<\/em>, the legend of “Yomi no Kuni” (literally the realm of the dead) has a section regarding the tsurugi<\/em>’s role in the magic arts. In brief, this myth states that the deities Izanagi and Izanami created the heaven and earth, and conceived many other deities (kami). However, when Izanami gave birth to the kami of fire, she lost her life and transcended to Yomi no Kuni. Izanagi follows her, yet finds Yomi no Kuni to be a defiled place filled with maggots and pus. When the horrified Izanagi returns home, he invoked magic while wielding a tsurugi<\/em>. According to the Heih\u014d jikansh\u014d<\/em>, “The origin of the art of magic with the sword stems from when Izanagi fled from Yomi no Kuni \u2013 the place where Izanami was \u2013 and used a magic tsurugi<\/em> sword to drive away the kami<\/em> of lightening.” The tsurugi<\/em> is a time-honoured magical implement, and this is something that was communicated in kenjutsu<\/em>. The issue as to why the tsurugi<\/em> became a magical implement interesting. The following passage offers an answer: <\/p>\n

“Mitama-tsurugi-majifuru-no-tachi is the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi wielded by the deity Takemikazuchi”. <\/p>\n

Thus, the simple answer to the question of the tsurugi<\/em> was magical is because it the “sword of the kami”. A point to be covered in more detail later on, the Gods referred to in the mythology would accomplish various great feats with their tsurugi<\/em> swords. In particular, Takemikazuchi\u2014the God of war\u2014was said to be able to achieve miraculous things with the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (sacred sword) that he carried.<\/p>\n

In the magic of (Shint\u014d-ry\u016b) kenjutsu<\/em>, the tsurugi<\/em> possessed by the deities (a sword that is treated as sacred for this reason alone) and one’s own katana<\/em> were considered conceptually the same. As such, one could utilise the same magic as the kami<\/em> \u2013 or at least, this was the way they thought. Bizarre as this may sound, one would assume that there must have been some kind of magical occurrences support such beliefs. Moreover, the ability to execute exclusive and marvellous techniques \u2013 that the average man could not dream of \u2013 would certainly have justified the label of ‘sword master’. Their methods undoubtedly seemed to be godlike. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. Yamabushi Magic<\/h4>\n

Although this line of thinking may be considered a strange now, it was not all that peculiar then. The beliefs of the yamabushi<\/em> (mountain ascetics) clearly demonstrate this. The founder of the Ten-ry\u016b, Sait\u014d Denkib\u014d, was said to have been taught the ways of the sword by yamabushi<\/em>. The relationship between these men and kenjutsu<\/em> runs deep \u2013 enduring harsh shugy\u014d<\/em> (ascetic training) in the mountains, the skills that the yamabushi<\/em> acquire are said to be so strong that they have the mysterious ability to fell demons. <\/p>\n

The main object of their worship is Fud\u014d-my\u014d-\u014d<\/em> (literally The Immovable, a manifestation of Mahavairocana), a part of Buddhism that essentially invokes the ability or power to overcome both an external foe and the evils within the self. Termed ch\u014dbuku<\/em> (exorcism) the Fud\u014d-my\u014d-\u014d<\/em> suggests that it is the sword of chie<\/em> (insight, prajna<\/em> \u2013 an insight leading to enlightenment) within the self that allows one to achieve this ability.<\/p>\n

By emulating and dressing in the manner of the Fud\u014d-my\u014d-\u014d<\/em> the mountain priests attempt to reach a unity with the highest spirit, thus endeavouring to achieve ch\u014dbuku<\/em> ability. Carrying a katana called a shiba-uchi<\/em>, this sword embodies the wisdom of Fud\u014d-my\u014d-\u014d<\/em>. They believe that they can adopt the power or Fud\u014d-my\u014d-\u014d<\/em> and have the ability perform magic. <\/p>\n

The yamabushi<\/em> way of life is known as shugend\u014d<\/em> (Japanese mountain asceticism-shamanism). It is a blend of ancient Japanese Shint\u014d and esoteric Buddhist teachings, and is considered the most extreme form of the so-called shinbutsu-sh\u016bg\u014d<\/em> (syncretism of Shint\u014d and Buddhism). Because of this, the magical aspects seen in kenjutsu<\/em> has the same feeling to it as Shint\u014d and Buddhism; and it can also be said that that kenjutsu<\/em> was greatly influenced by yamabushi<\/em> thought. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

Although it was normal for the yamabushi<\/em>, one might also say that swordsmen were also shamans to a certain degree too. Their katana<\/em> were conceptually the same as the tsurugi<\/em> that the deities possessed, and as such, it was seen as a magical implement.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The <\/strong>Imperial Regalia<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

The previous section was a discussion of the magic powers of the sword \u2013 that is, the use of the tsurugi<\/em> in divination. This section will analyse a very important aspect in the concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>, and it is a topic that modern kend\u014d<\/em> practitioners should be aware of as it illustrates the cultural breadth and depth of kend\u014d<\/em>’s background. It concerns the “imperial regalia” (sanshu no jingi<\/em>). <\/p>\n

The imperial regalia are often mentioned kend\u014d books. Kend\u014d<\/em> written by Takano Sasabur\u014d is a good example. The “sanshu no jingi<\/em>” consist of a mirror (Yata-no-Kagami<\/em>), a sword (Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>), and a strand of comma-shaped jewels (Yasakani-no-Magatama<\/em>) that symbolises the emperor’s eminence. As mentioned in texts about kenjutsu<\/em>, the imperial regalia primarily relate to matters of political power and legitimacy and social systems. It is also mentioned as such in modern works relating to kend\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

As we have seen, in kend\u014d<\/em> or kenjutsu<\/em>, the t\u014dken<\/em> was revered as a sacred object. This image is based on the inclusion of a sword in the three imperial regalia. Originally the regalia were symbols of political and power and society, a fact which enables one to sense the cultural depth of kend\u014d<\/em>. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. About the Imperial Regalia<\/h4>\n

Initially the imperial regalia were used by the ancient emperors as instruments legitimising his rule, and were implements used in rituals referred to as saiki<\/em>. In ancient times, government and religion were inseparable, and emperor would engage divination to rule the land by using these magical items. In other words, the emperor was a shamanistic ruler, and his reign and these ritualistic implements \u2013 the mirror, sword, and magatama<\/em> beads\u2014went hand in hand.  <\/p>\n

When his reign ended and a new emperor ascended the throne of power, the next in line would inherit these ritualistic tools to signify his legitimacy as ruler. This process became institutionalised each time a new emperor took over from the last, and the imperial regalia were symbolic and integral to the ceremony.<\/p>\n

Just as in ancient times, the regalia still hold an important symbolic role as ceremonial implements. Representative of this, the Kusanagi no tsurugi<\/em> sword is housed and worshipped in the Atsuta Shrine as being symbolic of the kami<\/em>. The imperial regalia take on the double role as implements used in worship and religious ceremony, and also as a symbol of the kami<\/em>, and of the emperor’s eminence. How does faith, religion, governance, and social systems fit together with martial culture? <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Relationship between the Imperial Regalia and the Military<\/h4>\n

Somewhat surprisingly, a thorough investigation shows that from the Heian period, the social role of the imperial regalia was not overly significant. Even in the Shoku Nihongi<\/em> (the second volume of the Rikkokushi<\/em> – six classical Japanese history texts) compiled by the Nara and Heian courts, there are only a few mentions of the imperial regalia. The regalia were afforded little importance. However, circumstances changed significantly with the onset of the Kamakura era. This was a period that saw a major historical turning event with the rise of militant rule from the nobles in the imperial court. The famous war tale Heike monogatari<\/em> (“Tale of the Heike”), a chronicle of the rise and fall of powerful warrior clan is based on these evtnts. <\/p>\n

In the Gempei War, the considerably worsening situation of the Heike (Taira) clan caused them to flee the capital with the young emperor Antoku with the imperial regalia in hand. A fierce battle broke out over possession of the regalia demonstrating how important they had become to both the warrior leagues of the Genji (Minamoto) and Heike. This importance is also evident from the abundant references to the regalia in the war tales. <\/p>\n

What had happened that caused such a contrast in the importance afforded to the regalia compared to previous eras? Basically, the imperial regalia had become an important part of the ascendance ceremony for generations of emperors by this stage, and had thus established a symbolic function in the imperial social system of governance. These sacred items verified the emperor’s status, and to back the emperor in possession of the regalia served to prove one’s own legitimacy, or legitimacy of one’s political cause.  <\/p>\n

Both clans were using military force to impose their will, but their cause could only be justified if they were on the side of the emperor who held the regalia. Whether or one was an enemy of the state was determined this way. The Heike were in a strong ‘legitimate’ position because they were controlled the emperor who held the regalia, and the Genji were determined to obtain them to legitimise their cause. Herein lays the connection between the regalia, religion, government, and military matters.   <\/p>\n

In the end, seeing the defeat of the Heike clan becoming eminent, the second in charge of the Heike clan (Kiyomori’s wife) took hold of the sacred sword, the jewels, and the young emperor and threw herself into the waves at Dannoura (rather than live to see their clan’s ultimate defeat at the hands of the Minamoto). The jewels floated back to the surface, but the sword sunk to the bottom of the ocean. As it happened, the loss of the sacred sword from the three regalia resulted in even more significance being placed on it in the future when it was ‘recovered’. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. Establishing the Image of the Kusanagi<\/em> Sword<\/h4>\n

With the ensuing Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Muromachi period, the significance of the regalia and the sword continued to gain momentum. At the beginning of the Muromachi period, the Taiheiki<\/em> (war tale) contains a very suggestive passage when it mentions “the offering of the treasured sword in Ise.” These words refer to the retrieval of the Kusanagi<\/em> sword that was lost in the ocean with the young emperor Antoku in the Battle of Dannoura. <\/p>\n

The monk Enj\u014d was said to have retrieved a sword that was ‘floating’ in the water, which was proclaimed as being the long-lost Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> sword. Enj\u014d went to the capital and had the chief councillor of state, Sukeakira, verify if it was actually the sacred sword. A revelation in a dream confirmed that it was indeed the Kusanagi<\/em> sword \u2013 and the matter should have been concluded. However, the story was to take another turn. <\/p>\n

Sukeakira’s rival, B\u014dj\u014d Dainagon Tsuneaki, was also at the court at the time. Hearing of the return of the sacred sword, Tsuneaki approached the retired emperor and made accusations that Sukeakira was in fact a traitor. He suggested that a revelation in a dream could not be relied on, resulting in an overturn of Sukeakira’s assertions. <\/p>\n

An interesting story, leads one to wonder what this sacred kusanagi<\/em> sword actually was. In the preceding era, according to the Heike<\/em> monogatari<\/em>, owning the real imperial regalia was of the utmost importance. However, at this point it did not seem to matter whether the sword was a genuine artefact or not, just because tow court rivals did not get on with each other.   <\/p>\n

The Kusanagi<\/em> sword was already established as a sacred item of faith. Thus, it may be that the item at hand was only considered as symbolic, and so the value placed on whether it was authentic or otherwise was less than in the previous era. I term this as “non-existent symbolism”, and this helps to explain that the sacredness of the Kusanagi<\/em> sword was established more on its idea or image than its physical existence. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

It is undeniable that the imperial regalia were a driving force in the rise of the warrior class for the first time in history. From here on, warrior hegemony continued for many centuries. With their rise, the imperial regalia acted to justify the use militaristic force, but eventually their significance reached a stage where the image or idea of these items would suffice. <\/p>\n

\nAs far as kenjutsu<\/em> is concerned, this line of thinking explains the devotion to t\u014dken <\/em>in that it harnesses the image or idea of the regalia. Consequently, this may also relate to the power of kenjutsu<\/em> in its justification of using the sword, a point that reveals the depth ofkend\u014d <\/em>and kenjutsu<\/em>’s cultural background.\n<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

Discussion to this point has been focused on the imperial regalia. Artefacts that acted as a spiritual pillar supporting the use of military force by bushi<\/em>, it was the kusanagi<\/em> sword in particular that was caught in the swirl of history and gained much in sacred significance. Further, it is this ideal that exerted an influence on both kenjutsu<\/em> and modern kend\u014d<\/em>. Therefore, from here I will take a closer look at the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>, and Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (which will be discussed later) both make up the two main sacred swords (reiken<\/em>) of Japan. As such, there are many examples of these swords as being sacrosanct within the traditional ideals of the t\u014dken<\/em>. It is this hallowed image of the Kusanagi<\/em> and Futsu-no-Mitama<\/em> swords, as depicted in ancient mythology that holds a special place in Japanese hearts. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Slaying of the Serpent <\/h4>\n

The first appearance of the Kusanagi<\/em> sword in Japanese mythology is in the story of the deity Susan\u014d-no-Mikoto and the slaying of the serpent. Accurately speaking, this sword is referred to as the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em> in this myth. (The Japanese myth appears very similar to the Chinese myth recorded in Shih-chi (an ancient Chinese historical chronicle) about the founder of the dynasty cutting down a snake, and consequently, both myths are often compared with each another. However, as there is limited room in this article for a detailed analysis of the content, I will simply say that while the makeup of each story is comparable, the theme of each legend is quite different.<\/p>\n

In the Japanese myth, Susan\u014d-no-Mikoto travels to the river Hi in the province of Izumo, where he comes across a tearful elderly couple at the head-waters of the river. Inquiring as to the reason of their sorrow, he was told that each year Yamata-no-Orochi, an eight-headed serpent, comes to devour one of their daughters, and is returning to take away another of their daughters soon. Susan\u014d arranges to help save the daughter, and requests that a very strong brew of sake is prepared for the serpent to drink. As the serpent drinks the brew and falls drowsy, Susan\u014d uses his Totsuka-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (ten-fist long sword) to slice the serpent up into little pieces. (This sword is written as totsuka no tsurugi<\/em> \u5341\u62f3\u5263, but can also be written as tozuka no tsurugi<\/em> \u5341\u63e1\u5263. It had a blade that was ten fists long.) As the tail of the serpent was cut open, Susan\u014d came across a magnificent sword. This sword was Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>, the very sword that was to become one of the imperial regalia. Wherever the serpent went was always cloudy, so the sword at that time was called the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (The Sword of the Gathering Clouds). <\/p>\n

Susan\u014d declared it as “an unusually divine sword” and presented the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em> to Amaterasu \u014cmikami in the heavenly plain.   <\/p>\n

The interesting thing about this particular myth is that over and above the sword that was used to cut up the serpent, it is the sword that came out of its tail would become more important and famous. There are many interpretations of myths. In this one, the Yamato-no-Orochi<\/em> serpent could be considered as being the spirit of water that was so important to ancient agricultural society. Therefore, it may be that this was a customary offering to the spirit. In other words, this myth can be thought of as a representation of religious beliefs in ancient communities. <\/p>\n

In this story the serpent was slain, and from the inside of its body appeared a new reiken<\/em> (sacred sword) was found and presented to the kami, later becoming an object of worship in shrines and a symbol of faith. What can this mean? <\/p>\n

In the early stages of the Yayoi period, advanced metal culture from China was introduced to the culturally undeveloped Japanese archipelago. At first, metal swords (tsurugi<\/em>) were became established not as practical weapons but as religious implements. Therefore, in this myth we can see an example of culture shock upon the arrival of the iron-age resulting in a transformation in people’s beliefs. The myth also hints at the deep significance the tsurugi<\/em> held within this belief system. It is plausible that Susan\u014d’s slaying of the serpent represents how the people shed their traditional beliefs, and the discovery of a new sword is symbolic of the place of the tsurugi<\/em> in the formation of new beliefs.  <\/p>\n

One further point to note from this myth is the idea that Susan\u014d presented the sacred sword to Amaterasu \u014cmikami (the Sun Goddess) in Takamagahara (the celestial world). In Japanese mythology, tales generally develop with a focus on the vertical space and interactions between heaven and the terrestrial world. (Below the earth is Yomi-no-Kuni<\/em>\u2014the world of the dead.) Takamagahara refers to the heavens and the terrestrial plain to the province of Izumo\u2014thus the sword went from down on earth up to the heavens. I would like to continue to focus on this particular point from here. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Descent to Earth of the Grandson of the Sun Goddess<\/h4>\n

The next myth this sacred sword features in concerns the descent to earth of the grandson of the Sun Goddess. This myth explains Amaterasu \u014cmikami, the ruler of Takamagahara, sending her own descendent to the terrestrial world in order to rule. The one sent was Ninigi no Mikoto, the Grandson of Amaterasu, and is also said to be the ancestor of the imperial family in Japan. This episode is known as “Tenson K\u014drin<\/em>” (Descent to Earth of the Grandson of the Sun Goddess). <\/p>\n

At this time, Amaterasu \u014cmikami gives Ninigi no Mikoto a mirror, sword, and jewels, which forms the mythological origins of the three imperial regalia. The sword, as mentioned previously, was the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em>, which later became known as Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

As a side note, this myth also contains a political nuance. The myths recorded in the Kojiki<\/em> and Nihon<\/em> Shoki<\/em> were originally handed down by word of mouth and compiled by the imperial court. Thus, it is inevitable that political biases in the myths actor in the content. A particularly strong undertone of imperial intent can be sensed in the myth of Tenson K\u014drin<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Although these shades of political motive make for interesting discussion, it is not what I want to cover here. I would like to concentrate my analysis on Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em>). In particular, when Susan\u014d slayed the serpent and presented Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi to the kami<\/em>, and then the sword’s return to the terrestrial world as relayed in the myth of Tenson K\u014drin<\/em>. <\/p>\n

In the early stages of mythology regarding the birth of kami<\/em> and the creation of land, the deities were incessantly moving back and forwards between the heavens and the earth. Whether it was a case of these boundaries being unclear, it was certainly the case that these worlds being in close proximity. However, stories of the historical era gradually solidified the boundaries between the various plains, and distances became greater resulting in the borders between humans and the kami<\/em> becoming distinctly defined. Yet, in this myth the sword was able to traverse the two worlds. This is what made the sacred sword so hallowed, and where the image or sense of the sword’s sanctity derives. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. The Eastern Journey of Yamato Takeru<\/h4>\n

When discussing this reiken<\/em> (sacred sword) it is essential to also consider the “Eastern Journey of Yamato Takeru”. Before examining this story, it is necessary to elaborate a little more about the sacred sword. After Ninigi no Mikoto descended to earth, the sacred Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> of the imperial regalia would become a symbolic item for establishing the emperor’s status, and thus representative of the imperial family. A replica of the sword was made due to concerns about having the emperor reside in the same place as the regalia. The replica stays with the emperor, and the genuine article is said to be enshrined in the Ise Shrine and was worshipped by Yamatohime, founder of the shrine. <\/p>\n

The tale of Yamato Takeru’s eastern journey states that as Yamato sets out to defeat his enemies to the east, he visits Yamatohime at the Ise Shrine and was entrusted Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> by her. At the height of his journey, Yamato Takeru is led into a trap where he is fired on with flaming arrows as he stands in a field. With his back to the wall, one story suggests that the sacred sword drew itself and began to mow down the grass, protecting Yamato Takeru from the flames. As the characters for “kusanagi<\/em>” mean “to mow\/cut down grass” (\u8349\u8599), this is how the sword was bestowed its new name. When referring to the sacred sword prior to Yamato Takeru’s eastern journey, I believe it is more accurate to refer to it as Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi<\/em> from the time it was used by Susan\u014d to slay the serpent. <\/p>\n

For some reason Yamato Takeru left the sacred sword behind with Miyazuhime, as he went to kill the kami<\/em> of Mount Ibuki where he is unsuccessful and dies. Miyazuhime took the sword and enshrined it in, what is known today as Atsuta Shrine, where it remains as an object of worship as a symbol of the kami<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

Hopefully the reader has been able to acquire a sense or image of the mythological significance of Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> and how it is still an important symbol for Japanese linking them with their ancestors and mythological past. If anything, the sacred nature of Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> was forged in ancient mythology, and links the heavens and the earth. For this reason, to those who inhabit the terrestrial realm the sword serves as a powerful symbol of the kami<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

To this point we have discussed the role of the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> in ancient mythology. Shaped by these myths and legends, the image of the sword has long been a part of the minds and hearts of the Japanese people, and continues even now to be at the base of their spiritual culture whether they realise it or not. <\/p>\n

Within the Japanese concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>, and with a similar distinction, there is another sword of equal standing. That is Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em>. In line with Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em>, I believe that these two swords are the two main sacred swords of Japan. As discussed previously, this sword was crucial for the magical beliefs in Tsukahara Bokuden’s Shint\u014d-ry\u016b. The sacredness of Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> is also explicated in mythology, and I will analyse this from here. (Depending on the text or myth, some names may have been recorded differently. However, these have not been specified in great detail here.)<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Tale of the Fire God<\/h4>\n

In the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b, the tsurugi<\/em> was used as a tool in magical practices. The reason the tsurugi<\/em> took on this role of a magical implement was due to the belief that it was the sword of the kami Takemikazuchi.<\/p>\n

Discussion regarding Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> cannot be conducted without mention of Takemikazuchi. Worshiped today as a deity in the Kashima Shrine, he was the kami<\/em> of war, t\u014dken<\/em>, and thunder. Originally, he was perceived as principally kami of t\u014dken<\/em>. Let us begin our examination from here. <\/p>\n

The birth of Takemikazuchi is recorded in the myth of the “God of Fire” (the slaying of the God of Fire). In this myth, the Izanagi and Izanami created the land and gave birth to various other kami<\/em>. However, when giving birth to the kami<\/em> of fire, Izanami burned to death. Angry at the death of his wife, Izanagi<\/em> used the Totsuka-no-Tsurugi<\/em> to kill the new-born kami<\/em>, which resulted in the creation of eight other kami<\/em>, one of which was Takemikazuchi. <\/p>\n

The kami<\/em> who were born from this event were associated with things like fire, rock, and water. From here, the relationship of these elements in the process of making swords by melting steel with fire, forging it over rock and cooling it with water is often referred to, and can be identifiable in this myth. In any case, the kami that appear in this story are referred to in the Kojiki<\/em> as “the eight collective kami<\/em> who were spawned from the sword”, the sword that killed the fire kami<\/em>. This is why Takemikazuchi is known as the kami for t\u014dken<\/em>. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. The Relinquishment of the Land <\/h4>\n

Takemikazuchi plays a particularly important part in the myth of the “relinquishment of the land” (kuni-yuzur<\/em>i). As previously discussed, there is a tendency for Japanese mythology to develop stories with a focus on the heavens and the earth. The heavens are referred to as Takamagahara<\/em> (the celestial world) and is the realm of the kami<\/em>; and the mortal world is referred to as Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni<\/em>. (In mythological times, there were kami<\/em> who were active in the mortal realm. These kami were called “kunitsu kami<\/em>” or gods of the land, and were separate from the amatsu kami<\/em> or heavenly deities in Takamagahara<\/em>.) <\/p>\n

Amaterasu \u014cmikami decided to send her own offspring to the terrestrial realm in order to rule. This is the aforementioned tale of Tenson K\u014drin<\/em>. However, in order to be able to descend to Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni<\/em>, there had to be a state of control in the earthly realm beforehand. That is, there was a need for a preliminary step, and herein lays the tale of the “relinquishment of the land”. <\/p>\n

Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni <\/em>was initially governed by \u014ckuni-nushi (deity of magic and medicine later viewed as equivalent to Daikokuten and celebrated at Izumo Grand Shrine). However, at the decree of Amaterasu \u014cmikami, Takemikuzuchi was to go and negotiate the abdication of the land from \u014ckuni-nushi. Negotiation was an understatement of intent as Takemikazuchi forced the issue. <\/p>\n

In the story, Takemikazuchi appears as the child of the kami<\/em> Ame-no-ohabari. In the myth of the slaying of the kami<\/em> of fire, this was the name given to the sword Izanagi used to kill the fire deity. As ancient beliefs in Japan were animistic and anything could be referred to as a kami<\/em>, this sword became the kami Ame no Ohabari, and Takemikazuchi was his child, which is how he became the kami<\/em> of t\u014dken. <\/p>\n

Sent from the heavens to earth, Takemikazuchi first drew Totsuka-no-Tsurugi<\/em> (ten-fist long sword), pointed its tip in the air, sat cross-legged on it its tip, and coerced \u014ckuni-nushi to give up his control. This description of the story also portrays Takemikazuchi as the kami<\/em> of t\u014dken<\/em>. Resisting the abdication, Takeminakata, a child of \u014ckuni-nushi, challenges Takemikazuchi to a battle (a contest of strength). <\/p>\n

Takeminakata grabs the hand of Takemikazuchi, at which point this hand turns into a sword. Shocked, Takeminakata reels back to which Takemikazuchi then takes hold of the hand of Takeminakata and throws him across the floor. The contest was won.  <\/p>\n

Here \u014ckuni-nushi agrees to relinquish the terrestrial realm, and the myth is concluded. Importantly in this story, Takemikazuchi was portrayed as a sword himself, and this became a crucial point in the abdication of the land. It was Takemikazuchi, the deity of token<\/em>, who was sent from the heavens to rule on the earth.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. Emperor Jimmu’s Journey to the East<\/h4>\n

Kusanagi-no-tsurugi <\/em>was explained in the tale of Yamato Takeru’s “Journey to the East”, and there is a similar account given for the relationship between the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> and Takemikazuchi. This is the tale of the Emperor Jimmu’s journey to the east, and is an important narrative when considering Japanese concepts of t\u014dken<\/em>. <\/p>\n

The so-called first emperor of Japan, Jimmu, left the island Kyushu to fight his rivals in the east. Stopping en route<\/em> in Kumano, he meets the wrath of a spiteful deity and faces seeming death as his entire army falls. Jimmu was confronted with the desperate situation of being unable to unite the country when a man named Takakuraji offered him a tsurugi<\/em> sword. At this point Jimmu regained his true spirit, his army was revived, and even more mysteriously, the spiteful deity was defeated without even a swing of the sword. This is a critical point. Emperor Jimmu’s exploits were surely thanks to this sword’s divine power, the sword known as Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

From here the discussion becomes somewhat complex. Regarding how Takakuraji came to have this sword, it is said that he obtained it in a dream. Below is an outline of the content of that dream. At this point Amaterasu \u014cmikami emerges in the story. Upon looking down from the heavens Jimmu’s predicament on earth, Takemikazuchi is urged to go and assist. However, he does no go himself. The issue of boundaries between the heavens and the earth becoming clearly defined, and the distance becoming further apart has already been discussed; however, this tale of Jimmu’s journey to the east occurs right at a transition period between the mythical age and historical era. Therefore, as the co-existence of the kami<\/em> and humans became divided, in contrast to the myth about the “relinquishment of the land, it was more a case of Takemikazuchi not being able to go rather than him not wanting to. As such, with the sentiment “send the sword that was used to subjugate the terrestrial realm once before”, Takemikazuchi sent the sword in place of himself. It was the same sword that was used in the tale of the myth of the “relinquishment of the land”, and as Takakuraji awoke from his dream, the sword was actually there. It was the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em>, and was then presented to Jimmu. <\/p>\n

This is the crux of the tale Jimmu’s journey to the east. According to this legend, to say that Jimmu was able to unite the country owing to Takemimazuchi and the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi and thus become the first emperor of Japan is no exaggeration. In the year of his ascendance, Jimmu decided that Takemimazuchi would be worshiped in Kashima in the eastern provinces by way of appreciation. This place is now Kashima Shrine, and enshrined there is the (second generation) Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> as a national treasure. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Summary<\/h4>\n

In the spiritual world where kami<\/em> and humans did not co-exist, it was the tsurugi<\/em> sword that linked each realm \u2013 or more specifically it was the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi. <\/em>This can also be said of the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. <\/em> Linking the heavens and the earth, this is the reason these sacred swords are still revered today with their image firmly set in ancient mythology. This is the starting point of the Japanese concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Tsurugiof Ancient Korea<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. The Propagation of the Ideas of the Sword<\/h4>\n

The previous section discussed the sacred Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> and Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> from ancient mythology, their role in linking the two realms and consequent adulation, and how their image formed the starting point of the Japanese concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>. In a discussion regarding ancient times such as this, there may be a sense that we have drifted far from modern kend\u014d<\/em>. However, from these stories we can get a feel for the breadth and depth of the cultural nature of kend\u014d<\/em>, and where we can continue to go from here. <\/p>\n

As the reader may know, there are many aspects of Japanese culture that originate in China. Familiar examples are the religious cultures of Buddhism and Confucianism, as well as the introduction of the metallurgy. As the sword is made from metal it is clear that they came from China, yet closer inspection reveals similar kinds of legends explaining the ideas of the sword (t\u014dken<\/em>) in ancient Korea also. In other words, concepts of t\u014dken<\/em> were established all over eastern Asia. In this section, discussion will turn towards the intermediary part between Japan and China played by ancient Korea. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Legend of Kim Yusin<\/h4>\n

Here I will introduce a representative tale\u2014the legend of Kim Yusin<\/em>. Kim was a general during the era of the Three Kingdoms, and is considered a national hero for his part in the unification of these three empires. He was also a part of the Hwarang<\/em>, an organisation consisting of young aristocratic warriors who were known to engage in the ‘magic arts’ or divination.\u00a0 The following is an account of the legend of Kim Yusin<\/em> according to the “Samguksagi<\/em>” (Records of the Three Kingdoms). <\/p>\n

There are stories about Kim Yusin<\/em> from the time of his birth. His father is said to have had a dream in which Mars and Saturn descended towards him; and his mother a dream where a child wearing a suit of golden armour entered their house \u2013 she became pregnant, and twenty months later, she gave birth to Yusin<\/em>. <\/p>\n

When he was fifteen he became a Hwarang<\/em>, and at the age of seventeen, he embarked on a journey through the mountains and learned divination. The following idea is particularly important, as it is said that when the neighbouring kingdom began to threaten the borders, Yusin<\/em> became distressed and he prayed to the heavens from the mountains. A light from a star shined onto his sword, and in turn the sacred sword began to shake and move. It is said that Yusin<\/em> used this sword to unite the three kingdoms. <\/p>\n

His historical actions can be thought of sequentially with the sacred sword\u2014the marvel of which, similar to the tale of Yusin<\/em>’s birth, is in the idea of the light of a star descending from the heavens towards it. As discussed previously, the tale of Jimmu’s journey to the east is a very important episode in the Japanese concepts of the sword, and I believe that there are some clear similarities between Jimmu’s experience and the legend of Kim Yusin<\/em>. In fact, it is clear that they are of the same extraction. <\/p>\n

Interestingly, the only differences are that in the case of the Japanese myth, it is the actual sword that descends from the heaven, whereas in the Korean legend it is the light of a star from the heavens that descends onto the sword (already situated on earth). <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. Stars and Swords<\/h4>\n

In this legend of Yusin<\/em>, the keyword is indeed “star”. The relationship of the sword to the stars is the foundation of the sword’s sacredness\u2014and with the inclusion of Korea, China also esteemed the stars and constellations. Although this is a complicated discussion, this relationship can be explained through the astrological ideals. \u00a0<\/p>\n

Characteristic of thinking in ancient China, it was believed that everything that happens on earth is decided by the will of the heavens. Good fortune or calamity, and even the outcome of battle, were all determined by heavenly will. This is referred to as tenmei<\/em> (heavenly will), and even if one was an influential or powerful leader on earth, he would have to abide by these principles. As a matter of course, people attempted to learn what heavenly will was in advance. <\/p>\n

As the appearance of the stars was an indication of the will of heavens, and this is why astrology in China developed so quickly. The heavens were revered unconditionally, as were the stars that showed the will of the heavens. In the aforementioned myth from ancient Korea, the light of the sacred stars from the heavens shone down onto the sword which identified its sacredness qualities. This idea was passed onto Japan, and the idea continued to progress with original spins put on it.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Sword of Ancient Chinese Taoism<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. The Flow of Taoism<\/h4>\n

The previous section looked at the bridging of ancient Japan and China through the concepts of the sword in the Korean peninsula, in relation to the legend of Kim Yusin<\/em>. The exploits of the hero Kim Yusin<\/em> saw him use his sword to unify the three Kingdoms\u2014a sword that was considered sacred due to the light of a star that shone down on it, denoting the main point in this myth as the “stars”. <\/p>\n

Further, Yusin<\/em> was a member of the Hwarang<\/em>, who engaged in divination. It is thought that the Hwarang<\/em> had close links to ancient Chinese Taoism, and from the purview of the concepts of the sword, I would have to agree. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, is one of the three major religions of China, and as it naturally spawned from folk beliefs and customs it has similarities to Japanese Shint\u014d to the extent that there are scholars who claim that Shint\u014d has been heavily influenced by Taoism. Taoist ideals suggest that the sword has much to do with the stars.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Stars and Sword in Taoism<\/h4>\n

As discussed previously, in accordance with the concept of the heavens, the stars were seen as sacred, and the beliefs concerning stars and constellations were closely linked to the sword in Taoist thought. A representation of this can be found in the Gansh\u014d-Kenkanzu<\/em>\u2014a text compiled during the T’ang Dynasty by the Taoist teacher Shiba Sh\u014dtei<\/em>. In the text, the sacredness of the sword and the mirror is discussed with a diagram showing the shape of the ‘Big Dipper’ constellation inscribed on a sword. As the standard astronomical observations of Polaris (the North Star) and the Big Dipper were particularly revered, this etching made the sword a sacred item.\u00a0 Furthermore, one other role of the hallowed sword in Taoism was its role in divination to ward off against evil spirits. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. \tThe Seishin (Astrological) Faith and the Sword<\/h4>\n

\"index_10_clip_image002\"<\/p>\n

The link between belief in seishin<\/em> (the stars and constellations) and the sword dates back a very long time. For instance, in the text “Kokon Token-roku<\/em>” (a record of ancient and modern swords), during the Xia Dynasty (approx. 2100 \u20131600 BCE), there is a description of a person named Kei<\/em> (said to be the child of the Yu<\/em>, creator of Xia Dynasty) who scribed the shape of the stars into the swords that he cast. Just as Yu<\/em>, Kei also had legends told about him, and although the historical credibility of this text is weak, it is perceivable that the connection between faith in astrology and swords is very old. <\/p>\n

Furthermore, in the text used towards the end of the Spring and Autumn era (approx. 770\u2013403 BCE) to deal with various matters, the “Go Etsu Shunj\u016b<\/em>”, it is said that the great commander Goshisho<\/em> of the state of Go<\/em> had seven stars (possibly the Great Dipper) engraved on his sword. <\/p>\n

This association between astrological beliefs and the sword are rich within Taoist concepts, particularly in the developments resulting from its links to the magic arts and warding off evil spirits. In ancient China also, the sword was revered in accordance with the stars. However, it is also interesting that although the stars did not descend from heaven, they were still carved directly onto the sword.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Sword of Go-Etsu (Rival States) in Ancient China<\/strong><\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

Discussion to this point has focussed on kend\u014d<\/em>’s long and rich culture that has been partly based on ancient beliefs. From here, focus will at last be given to the concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em>\u2014particularly the origin of the ideas behind the tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

This analysis has looked at the impressive development and divergence in East Asia in ancient times. Yet the core of commonality in each line of thought has been in their ideas regarding the sacredness of the sword. Let us now look at the details of when, where, and how this happened.<\/p>\n

Ancient China in particular was a culture known for its written record keeping of knowledge. In contrast to Japan’s history centred on ‘bu<\/em>’ (martial), one might say that, except for a few rebellions, it was China’s excellence in the arts or ‘bun<\/em>’ that defined its historical development. As such, it is inevitable that there are many wonderful ancient texts that are still in existence today regarding their intellectual development. One such text is the Ruisho<\/em>, and this was used by scholars to create literary works, and as important study material for Chinese higher civil-service and governmental placement examinations\u2014not unlike an encyclopaedia today. Specifically, these texts include Hokud\u014d shosh\u014d<\/em> (literary ‘excerpts from the northern temple’), Geimon ruijy\u016b<\/em> (collection of similar works of art and literature’), and Taihei gyoran<\/em>. It is upon inspection of this large number of examples that we are able to find the starting point for the conceptual creation of t\u014dken<\/em>. <\/p>\n

From here, I will look at the ideals of the swords revered by the regions of Go and Etsu<\/em> during the Autumn and Spring era of ancient China. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Taia Swords<\/h4>\n

To provide a simple example, in one of the volumes of the S\u014dji<\/em> it is written that “those who possess a sword made in Go or Etsu should shut it away in a box; they should treat it as a treasure of the highest order.” At this time the tsurugi<\/em> swords of both Go and Etsu were known far and wide as treasured items. <\/p>\n

The marvellous swords of Go and Etsu can be considered to lie at the root of ideas behind the tsurugi<\/em>. The text Etsu zetsu-sho<\/em> further discusses this point, and was said to have been written in the Later Han Dynasty by Enk\u014d and Gohei. As far as its content, it describes the rise and fall of the So province situated on the outskirts of Go and Etsu during the Autumn and Spring era, while giving an account of its history and position. <\/p>\n

Below is an excerpt that has been quoted from the Etsu zetsu-sho<\/em>. F\u016bkoshi<\/em> (a sword appraiser) of the state of So, had three other iron swords made in addition to the taia sword. Hearing of these famed swords, the King of the Jin province wanted to acquire them, yet he was unsuccessful. He and his soldiers therefore placed the province of So under a siege that spanned for three years. The food supply within the area became depleted, and the situation became grave. Below is a continuation of this story from an original text. It states:<\/p>\n

When the King of So heard of this, he drew the taia sword, climbed the watchtower of the castle himself and led his troupes. The giant army of the Jin Dynasty suffer a devastating defeat, the soldiers lost their minds, blood flowed for thousands of miles, and even the wild animals were frightened, the water of the Yangtze swelled, and because of this, the hair on the head of King Zheng turned white. In delight, the King of So exclaims; “Could this be the might of the gods in this treasured sword, or was it the might of my humble self?” To which F\u016bkoshi replied; “It was indeed the heavenly might of the treasured sword, and also the great King who has the courage of a god.”<\/p>\n

This is certainly a very interesting sword legend, and has two points that deserve attention. The first, in this story the taia<\/em> sword is spoken of as something that transcended being a mere weapon. This is not because the King of So superhumanly cut down such a large number of enemies with the sword, but that his enemies were so convincingly overcome when he merely directed his troops with the sword. The tone of this part of the story bears a resemblance to the Japanese legends of Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi and Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em>. <\/p>\n

Therefore the second point concerns exactly how hallowed this sword was. That is, was it the possessor of the sword who was great, or was it the sword itself? Using the example of a common Chinese sacred sword legend, there once was a leader who cut down and defeated a snake with a sword 3-shaku<\/em> in length. In this story, the snake represents the Shin Dynasty (in other words Qin Shi Huang – also known in Japanese as Shik\u014dtei – the Emperor of this state). This is a story that is said to symbolise the 3-shaku<\/em> sword wielding leader overthrowing the Shin Dynasty (the snake), and thus bringing the rise of the Han Dynasty. As this leader became the emperor of the Former Han Dynasty, the sword used was worshiped, and is still spoken of to this day. However, even if it was a different sword that the leader used, surely he would still have managed to cut down and defeat the snake to become emperor. In other words, it was not the sword, but the man who was great. <\/p>\n

Therefore, when looking at the excerpt from the Etsu zetsu-sho<\/em> when the king of So asks “could this be the might of the gods in this treasured sword, or was it the might of my humble self?” F\u016bkoshi<\/em> considerately replies “It was indeed the heavenly might of the treasured sword” while also declaring that the great King “has the courage of a god.” This can be interpreted as meaning that the sword was greater, and at this point, it was certainly a transcendent and sacred item. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3. Transcendence by Time<\/h4>\n

Why was the tsurugi so hallowed?\u00a0 This point is clearly answered in the Etsu zetsu-sho<\/em>. Firstly, it poses the following question: The sword is made of iron. Is it possible that iron was already imbued with divine qualities? The following quote may answer this question. <\/p>\n

“Each era makes this so.” From ancient times until the present, there have been various stages of development such as during the time of Kenen, Shin\u014d, and Kakusho, when weapons were fashioned from stone, and even palaces were built from shrubs and branches. In the time of the “Yellow Emperor” Huang Di (also known as K\u014dtei in Japanese) weapons were formed with jewels, and forests were cut down to build his palace. At this time jewels were also hallowed as sacred. In the era of Yu, weapons were made from copper. Nowadays weapons are made of iron, and the large military forces that possess their might have control, something that no person on earth can defy. <\/p>\n

Simply put, there was a Stone Age, a Copper Age, and now the Iron Age; and as each era was considered to be at the cutting edge of civilisation for the time, this is the reason as to why weapons (swords) were deemed so sacred. From this, we can see that the prior to Taoist thought and seishin <\/em>(astrological) belief and so on, there lay an extremely pure and primitive reason for the reverence of swords due to the material they were made from.\u00a0 <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

4. The Transcendence of the Sword as a Weapon<\/h4>\n

Why was it the sword at the forefront of civilisation in this era and area? The Spring and Autumn era was an approximate 360 years long, and occurred between BCE 770 and BCE 403. With constant warring, it was a turbulent time where only the fittest survived. It was common in battles of the time for soldiers fight on horse and chariot. It happens that the story of Go and Etsu at the centre of this tale, took place on the outskirts of the state of So, a region with many rivers, lakes and marshland that did not suit this mode of battle. Consequently, the soldiers were forced to engage in hand-to-hand combat, and the main weapon used in these m\u00eal\u00e9es was the sword. <\/p>\n

The swords they used were made of iron from the most civilised regions, therefore making them seem sacred. Basically, the origins of ideals concerning the sacredness sword came from its practical use. The practicality of the sword as a weapon was crystalised by the development of advanced techniques that went far beyond common experience, and is why it became seen as sacred, and also why there are so many sword legends like the ones explored here. The Spring and Autumn period in the area of Go-Etsu was a golden age for using the sword as a weapon, and was a very bright stage for it to be featured on. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

5. Summary<\/h4>\n

\n Following this, the usefulness of the tsurugi<\/em> sword as a weapon was changed as the straight katana<\/em> sword was introduced around the Hanera. Tsurugi<\/em> swords on the battlefield disappeared, but it became a ceremonial item in the Taoism belief system, and an object used in religious rituals. These articles have covered a lot of material to demonstrate the origins of the concepts of t\u014dken<\/em>, and the reasons why they were revered as sacred objects.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Epilogue
\n A Bird’s-eye View<\/h3>\n

<\/p>\n

1. Introduction<\/h4>\n

The significance of kend\u014d<\/em> in modern society (aside from its role in athleticism) is, for one thing, its cultural contributions, of which a particular focus on the study of the concepts of the t\u014dken<\/em> has been presented here. However, it is possible that the overall picture may have become blurred. In closing, I will provide a bird’s-eye look at the main points of this text. By doing this, I hope that the width and depth of the cultural nature of kend\u014d<\/em> will become clear to the reader. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

2. The Breadth of Cultural Nature <\/h4>\n

As the reader may have already gathered, the concepts of the token, particularly the idea of the tsurugi<\/em> being more sacred than the katana<\/em>, was not confined to kenjutsu. It was a phenomenon that also existed in many other forms of culture. This shows the girth of kend\u014d<\/em>’s culture, but can also be broken down into three groups or classifications.<\/p>\n

‘Divination against evil spirits’, and the techniques used to overcome one’s own mind with the tsurugi<\/em>\u2014the so called ‘cut the self and the opponent’\u2014are concerned with the individual pursuit of kenjutsu<\/em>. With the image of the tsurugi<\/em>, even as the ability to mentality to cope with the extraordinary situation of the battlefield shifted to an everyday system of morals and ethical spirituality, it is still an issue of the individual’s way of life, and operates on a personal level. This constitutes the first category.<\/p>\n

Secondly, in feudal society, the matters of the t\u014dken<\/em> being symbolic of the bushi<\/em> class, and also as a symbol of governance were mutually inclusive, and related to the spirituality of the masses. However, it is also true that this is limited to a specific population of a particular era in the long history of Japan. For instance, the strong tendency of the three imperial regalia to symbolise the eminence of the emperor is something that can be recognised as a political and social system. <\/p>\n

Thirdly, Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi and Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/em> acted to link heaven and the earth, and therefore signified the symbolised the deities. A symbol of faith even today, this image was created from ancient mythology. In matters concerning faith and religion, this is rooted deeply in the spirituality of the Japanese people, and can be considered a powerfully universal concept. <\/p>\n

Simply put, these categories relate to 1) an individual’s actions; 2) governance and social systems; and 3) faith and religion.\u00a0 These categories are depicted in diagram 1, and it is important to note that they are not independent of each other. They function as a basis for the next tier. As an example, if Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> of the imperial regalia did not become a symbol of religious belief, it would not have been positioned in the next tier as a symbol of imperialism. <\/p>\n

Each of these categories are interrelated by the characteristics of the Japanese sword concepts, yet even deeper than this is the sense of religious belief in t\u014dken<\/em>\u2014that of which is represented by Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/em> and Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi.<\/em> Without this, there would have been no sword concepts.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

3.\tThe Cultural Depth <\/h4>\n

This sense of religious belief in t\u014dken <\/em>was not unique to Japan. In ancient times, as was the case for many other aspects of culture civilisation, this idea stemmed from China and Korea. The roots of these religious beliefs as they relate to the concepts of t\u014dken <\/em>can be found here. The gist of these articles is represented in Diagram 2. <\/p>\n

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Discussion has ranged from the Korean legend of Kim Yusin<\/em> to ancient Taosim, and the sacred sword tale of Go and Etsu in the Spring and Autumn era. Without rehashing all the main points again, suffice it to say that the profundity of the culture that relates to the concepts of t\u014dken<\/em> should be plainly visible. <\/p>\n

\"index_12_clip_image004_e\" <\/p>\n

4. Final Summary<\/h4>\n

I have investigated the origins of the concepts of token<\/em>. I have shown that the roots of sword ideals and the depth of its culture nature can be found in China and Korea. This is not to say that the techniques of swordsmanship developed actually matured in China or Korea first. As mentioned previously with concern to religious belief, governance and society, t\u014dken<\/em> were revered from ancient times throughout East Asia. However, it came to relate to military and ideology in the medieval period in Japan with the perfection of the Nihon-t\u014d<\/em>\u2014when the bushi<\/em> began their long hegemony over the country. Precision of sword techniques eventuated in the early-modern era. <\/p>\n

With regard to the various cultural phenomena that concern the perception of t\u014dken<\/em> covered in this text, while being closely connected, it is no mistake that the techniques of the sword and the consequent line of thought saw a unique line of development in Japan. I believe that the cultural span, depth, and originality of the concepts of t\u014dken<\/em> are a part of the cultural nature of kend\u014d<\/em> that we can take great pride in. <\/p>\n

\u00a0(This text is a revised version of a series of articles first published as “The Concepts of the t\u014dken <\/em>1-12” (September, 2003 \u2013 August 2004)in “Kens\u014d<\/em>” (All Japan Kendo Federation) <\/h5>\n

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