{"id":105,"date":"2017-02-04T16:44:53","date_gmt":"2017-02-04T07:44:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp\/?p=105"},"modified":"2017-02-27T19:31:34","modified_gmt":"2017-02-27T10:31:34","slug":"%e5%ad%a6%e8%a1%93%e8%ab%96%e6%96%87%e3%83%86%e3%82%b9%e3%83%88","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/budo-world.taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp\/en\/2017\/02\/04\/%e5%ad%a6%e8%a1%93%e8%ab%96%e6%96%87%e3%83%86%e3%82%b9%e3%83%88\/","title":{"rendered":"Bu in Mythology"},"content":{"rendered":"

Sakai Toshinobu<\/strong> (University of Tsukuba)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Introduction<\/h4>\n

Warriors ruled Japanese for over 700 years from the medieval period until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Such an extended period of warrior hegemony has seldom been seen in world history. The majority of Japanese civilisation and culture has, from ancient times, been imported from China through Korea, and a process of maturation allowed many areas to undergo further development. However, as scholars such as Yuasa Yasuo points out, the government officials of China and Korea abided mainly with Confucian ideals, and largely saw the martial ways as undesirable.[1]<\/sup><\/a> Such views are reflected in the phrases of “bunson-buhi<\/em>” (value literary arts, reject martial arts) and “s<\/em>\u016b<\/em>bun-keibu<\/em>” (revere literature, spurn war). <\/p>\n

One might say that, in times of revolution or chaos, bu <\/em>(\u6b66= martial) stood at the forefront, but was reverted behind the scenes in times of peace where bun<\/em> (\u6587=literary) functioned as the driving forces behind leadership. Even within the tight cultural sphere formed by the East Asian countries of Japan, China, and Korea, it is the long rule of the bushi<\/em> that makes Japan’s history so unique.     <\/p>\n

The bushi<\/em> were primarily combatants, however this was not all that they did. As administrators of the country, they were required to be cultivated and possess knowledge and an understanding of various cultural pursuits. This characteristic was particularly true of the bushi<\/em> in the Edo period, and they were in many ways the cultural leaders of society. For this reason, in order to understand the historical culture of Japan, it is vital to understand the bushi<\/em>. To state my conclusion from the outset, an understanding of the bushi <\/em>is inextricably linked to Japan’s ancient mythology.   <\/p>\n

For instance, in the book Bushi-kun<\/em> authored by Izawa Banry\u014d it states; “The origin of bushi<\/em> extends way back into the age of the gods. Amatsu-Hikohiko-Hono-Ninigi-no-Mikoto who is the grandson of  Ame-no-Minakanishi-no-Mikoto Amaterasu \u014cmikami”. Here, one can clearly see the author is stressing that the origins of the warrior class can be evoked in the ancient myths chronicled in the Kojiki<\/em> or the Nihon Shoki<\/em> (in this case, the myth of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu \u014cmikami’s   grandson descending from the heavens). This type of description is quite common, and is certainly not limited to the Bushi-kun<\/em>.[2]<\/sup><\/a> <\/p>\n

In addition, as the bugei<\/em> (martial arts) were central to the existence of the bushi<\/em>, links are often made between myth and the concepts espoused in scrolls of martial art schools.[3]<\/sup><\/a> To provide an old example, the Gempei War (1185\u20131190) involved a fierce struggle between the Heike and Genji clans over the three Imperial Regalia. Symbolic of the emperor’s status and authority, the Regalia include a mirror (Yata-no-Kagami), a sword (Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi or Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi), and a string of jewels or beads (Yasakani-no-Magatama). The motivation for the Heike and Genji clans’ tenacious desire for the Imperial Regalia was through the belief that the army which possessed them was legitimately fighting for the emperor\u2014and anyone else was thereby automatically relegated to the realm of treason. This set of circumstances features in the Tale of the Heike<\/em>, in the section “Ken Kan” (sword scroll). The inclusion of myths in war chronicles such as this can be explained by the idea that the three Imperial Regalia (particularly the sword in this case) had already been established as sacred items symbolic of the imperial throne.<\/p>\n

The image that is shaped by ancient mythology has long existed at the core of the Japanese mind, and as such, has been a source of strength in the Japanese people. The Japanese bushi<\/em> were no exception. Although I have only briefly touched on the idea here, it could be said that the essence of the warrior identity in bu <\/em>was acclaimed through mythical images. <\/p>\n

There are three main thoughts regarding the explanation of the term bu<\/em>. The first, and best known, concerns the composition of the kanji character. With the combination of the radicals \u6208 (hoko\u2014<\/em>arms\/spear\/weapons) and \u6b62 (yamu\u2014<\/em>to stop), bu<\/em> is said to take on the meaning “not to fight”, except when it was necessary to prevent evil intent in others with one’s own military strength. This interpretation was commonly bandied about during times of peace. The second explanation also concerns the composition of the character; but in this case \u6b62 is interpreted as\u8db3 (ashi<\/em>\u2014legs\/feet). As such, bu<\/em> here takes on the meaning “to march with arms or weapons”. It is suggested that this is the original meaning in ancient China. It implies that bu<\/em> involved a direct or fierce approach to overpowering enemies. <\/p>\n

The third interpretation is completely different to the previous ones, and portrays bu<\/em> as dance (\u821e). A shamanistic interpretation of the term, it suggests that matters difficult for human beings to comprehend, could be solved through drawing on the power of the deities by dancing with a weapon. In this way, bu<\/em> was understood as a type of magic. <\/p>\n

These are the three main understandings of bu<\/em>, and although I am not suggesting one is more appropriate than the others, I do believe that each interpretation corresponds to a different era in Japanese history. That is, according to the concepts of religious incantation in ancient Japanese society, bu<\/em> was seen as a ritual of dance; bu<\/em> in the turbulent Warring States period referred to “the marching forth with weapons”; and in the peaceful era of the early-modern Edo period, it represented warrior status in society and a means to keep the peace and avoiding conflict, or using it to subdue evil. The magical bu<\/em> in the form of movement-dance constitutes the earliest notions of bu<\/em> in Japan forming an essential base for many lines of thought. This understanding can be inferred in ancient Japanese mythology, and offers an explanation as to why later texts about bushid<\/em>\u014d<\/em> and war tales so often allude to myths. <\/p>\n

This paper seeks to analyse efforts of warriors to identify with bu <\/em>through the medium of mythology. Japanese myths are profound, and have an element of romanticism that can be interpreted in many different ways. While exploring the world of mythology, I will elucidate ideas concerning the concepts of bu<\/em>. In turn, this will shed some light on the bushi<\/em> who characterise notions of historical Japanese spirituality. <\/p>\n

The myths I will examine are listed below. I will introduce applicable myths as they apply to each given topic, so there will be instances in which the information extracted from the Kojiki<\/em> and Nihon Shoki<\/em> do not appear in the same order as in the original text. The issue whether the axis of time in the myths should be assumed is always a problematic issue, but I have drafted the following list for easy reference:     <\/p>\n

\n \u30fbThe Creation of the Land
\n \u30fbThe Fire God
\n \u30fbYamata-no-Orochi
\n \u30fbThe Underworld
\n \u30fbAme-no-Wakahiko
\n \u30fbRelinquishing of the Land
\n \u30fbDecent by the Grandson of the Amaterasu \u014cmikami\u3000 \u2191Age of the Gods<\/u>
\n \u30fbJimmu’s Subjugation of the East\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u3000\u2193Age of Man
\n \u30fbSelection of Jimmu’s Wife
\n \u30fbYamatoTakeru’s Journey to the East <\/p>\n

\n <\/p>\n

Creation of the Mythical World through the Ame-no-Nuboko<\/h4>\n

The world according to the Japanese myths is generally viewed as consisting of the celestial plain Takamagahara, the terrestrial world or Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni, and the underworld known as Yomi-no-Kuni and Ne-no-Kuni, all of which are believed to be vertically aligned. Takamagahara is where the deities dwell, and Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni is where humans exist, and is ruled by terrestrial deities as opposed to the celestial ones. Yomi-no-Kuni (the underworld) is for the dead. Although Ne-no-Kuni is not a place for the dead, it is also positioned below the terrestrial world. <\/p>\n

In the myths described in the Kojiki <\/em>and Nihon Shoki<\/em>, the “Myth of the Creation of the Land” begins with this explanation of how Japan was formed. In a disordered and chaotic state, and without a clear division between the heavens and the earth, the male and female kami<\/em> (deities) known as Izanagi and Izanami magically create the earth. The duo stood on Ten-no-Ukihashi, a heavenly pillar in the skies and the Ame-no-Nuboko, a spear decorated in beads, is dipped into the ocean below. With a rumble the water began to churn. Pulling the spear out of the water, salt water drips from the tip, and an island is formed. This island was named Onogoro. Both Izanagi and Izanami descended to Onogoro, and cooperated to created more islands.  <\/p>\n

This is only a summary of the myth, however, the important point to consider here is the use of the Amanuma-no-Hoko. The myths recorded in the Kojiki<\/em> and Nihon Shoki<\/em> are said to be composed around a new perception of the world. That is, the celestial realm of the kami<\/em> came to be perceived as situated vertically above the other realms. This is contrary to earlier Japanese mythology in which each of the realms were horizontally aligned.[4]<\/sup><\/a> I agree with this theory. It is generally understood that these two chronicles were compiled under imperial command. However, as they were relayed by kataribe<\/em> (storytellers of the imperial court), until the myths were written down many were reconstructed to fit the new world perception. Here, the Chinese concept of tenmei<\/em> (heavenly will) in which transcendent beings resided in the heavens above became the fixed interpretation. <\/p>\n

This new perception of the mythical world was shaped on the metal hoko <\/em>(spear) that originated from new knowledge imported from Chinese civilization, and is represented by the myth of the “Creation of the Land” in the Kojiki <\/em>and Nihon Shoki<\/em>. The weapon referred to most often in mythology is the sword. A close look reveals that the sword is actually depicted as a sacred tool with magical properties. Generally, swords are collectively referred to as t<\/em>\u014d<\/em>-ken<\/em> (\u5200\u5263); but t<\/em>\u014d <\/em>(\u5200\u2014also read as katana<\/em>) and ken<\/em> (\u5263\u2014also read as tsurugi<\/em>) are different. The katana<\/em> has a single cutting edge, whereas the tsurugi<\/em> has a double-edged (moroha<\/em>) blade. An idealistic distinction was already made in China, where the double-edged sword was considered a sacred implement. In contrast to the view of the katana<\/em> as a weapon, the idea that the tsurugi<\/em> was a tool for use in rituals had already been established in ancient China. A detailed description of this is given in another article.[5]<\/sup><\/a> In any case, it is the hoko <\/em>(spear) which plays an important role here, as it represents the first appearance of a weapon in the Kojiki<\/em> and Nihon Shoki<\/em>. <\/p>\n

However, the hoko<\/em> is not described as having any further importance in the other myths. Although the weapon itself is essentially a double-edged tsurugi<\/em> sword with a long handle attached, it was the hoko <\/em>rather than the sacred tsurugi <\/em>itselfthat features in the creation myth. The reason is because in the myths in which the heavens and the earth were perceived as being vertically aligned, the long shaft of the spear was used to express the spatial distance between each world. It was believed that the tsurugi<\/em> alone would not reach the lower realm, and as such, it could not sufficiently represent the mythical world. I consider this reasoning to be a plausible explanation. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Birth of Takemikazuchi \u2013 The Kami of War<\/h4>\n

Next, I will focus on the “Myth of the Fire Deity”\u2014the story where the kami<\/em> of war, Takemikazuchi, is conceived. When Izanagi and Izanami finished creating the land, they began creating various other kami<\/em>. As ancient beliefs in Japan were animistic, and anything could be referred to as a kami<\/em>, it is said that together the two deities created the ocean kami,<\/em> the wind kami<\/em>, the forest kami<\/em>, the mountain kami<\/em>, and the kami<\/em> of the land. Finally however, as the kami<\/em> of fire(Kagutsuchi) was created, Izanami was burnt to death. Full of anguish and anger, Izanagi used his sword to kill the new-born kami <\/em>of fire, <\/em>and various other kami<\/em> were spawned from the blood splatters. These kami<\/em> were linked with fire, thunder and lightning (as fire from the heavens), rock and stone, and also water.  <\/p>\n

In the backdrop of this myth is a certain attitude with regards to fire. Due to its great destructive power, it was a held in awe by ancient Japanese. This myth depicts the mother’s death through fire, but it is also fire that aids the progress of civilisation. In this myth, the feared kami<\/em> of fire is defeated with a tsurugi<\/em> sword that symbolised advancement of a new civilisation. The important theme here is the kami<\/em> who were spawned as a result of the slaying the fire kami.<\/em> These kami, <\/em>which are related to fire (such as the lightning kami <\/em>as the source of fire), stone and water, are associated with the process of sword forging; the fire that heats the iron, the stone on which the iron is forged, and the water in which the metal is doused to harden it. In other words, this myth articulates the triumph over fire, and the ability to harness its latent power to create t<\/em>\u014d<\/em>ken <\/em>swords, and is symbolic of the advancement of civilisation.    <\/p>\n

Important to note here is the birth of the kami<\/em> of war, Takemikazuchi, who will become central to the ideals of bu <\/em>in Japan. Takemikazuchi has many identities including the kami<\/em> of thunder,<\/em> but he was principally kami<\/em> of tsurugi.<\/em> Later, in the myth of “Relinquishing of the Land”, the “ten-span sword” used to slay the fire kami<\/em> Kagutsuchi is deified as Ohabari, the child of a kami<\/em>. This is also why Takemikazuchi is worshiped as the kami<\/em> of bu.<\/em> This is important when considering the role of bu<\/em> in mythology. <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Descent of Takemikazuchi \u2013 The Kami of War<\/h4>\n

The first active part Takemikazuchi plays in Japanese mythology is in the myth of the “Relinquishing of the Land”. The background to this myth suggests that the ruler of Takamagahara (celestial world), Amaterasu \u014cmikami, decided to send her own offspring to subjugate the terrestrial realm. At the time, this realm was controlled by the \u014ckuni-nushi, and many other rowdy and unruly kami<\/em>. For this reason, Amaterasu decides to dispatch a messenger to take control of the situation. Eventually it was the kami<\/em> of war, Takemikazuchi, who was dispatched. <\/p>\n

Takemikazuchi descended from Takamagahara to the terrestrial world, and arrived on a shoreline known as Inasa. He then thrust his sword upside-down into the surf so that the handle dug into the sand and the tip of the sword extended upwards. Takemikazuchi then sat cross-legged on the tip of the sword, and insisted that \u014ckuni-nushi relinquished his reign. \u014ckuni-nushi opted for his son, Kotoshiro-nushi, to resolve this matter\u2014a challenge that Kotoshiro-nushi enthusiastically accepted. However, in response to this decision, Takeminakata, another of \u014ckuni-nushi’s sons, appears and confronts Takemikazuchi. Takemikazuchi’s hand transforms into a sword, and with great ease, he throws Takeminakata down. \u014ckuni-nushi has no choice but to abdicate. Having achieved his task, Takemikazuchi returned to Takamagahara and reported to Amaterasu.  <\/p>\n

This myth of the struggle between Takemikazuchi and Takeminakata is also used to describe the origins of sumo wrestling, and this mythological representation is important to its ideals. The main point here is that Takemikazuchi sat cross-legged upon the tip of a sword, an act that is nothing less than magical. Furthermore, the ability of this kami<\/em> to be one with the sword with the power to turn his hand into a blade clearly demonstrates the identity of Takemikazuchi as the kami<\/em> of swords.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Sacred Sword \u2013 the Descent of the Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi<\/h4>\n

The next tale in which Takemikazuchi features is that of emperor Jimmu’s subjugation of the east.[6]<\/sup><\/a> Also known as Kamu-Yamato-Ihare-Biko, Jimmu is said to be the first emperor of Japan. Having left Hy\u016bga in the southern island of Ky\u016bsh\u016b to battle his rivals in the east, Jimmu brought peace to the land, and was made the emperor at the Kashihara-no-Miya Shrine in Yamato. This course of events is described in the tale surrounding Jimmu’s conquest of the east.  <\/p>\n

Reaching Kumano, Jimmu encounters a ferocious kami<\/em>. However, both Jimmu and his army were incapacitated by the poisonous gas emitted by this deity,<\/em> and they were faced with the possibility of defeat. The emperor was the descendent of Amaterasu \u014cmikami. Watching these events unfold from the heavens, Amaterasu commands Takemikazuchi to go and assist the struggling army based on his good performance in taking control of the land. However, rather descend to the earth himself, Takemikazuchi elected to send the sword he previously used at Inasa bay in his place. Takemikazuchi’s placed the sword in the storeroom of a man by the name of Takakuraji, and then revealed the sword’s existence to Takakuraji in a dream. Upon awaking from his dream and actually finding the sacred sword in his cellar, Takakuraji went and handed it to Jimmu. Harnessing its divine power, Jimmu regained consciousness, and the evil kami<\/em> was said to have been defeated without even a swing of the sword. This sword is known as Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi. <\/p>\n

The important point here is that Takemikazuchi, who was joined with the sword in the myth of the “Relinquishment of the Land” was in this case detached from the sword. In other words, the power of the kami<\/em> of war in heaven manifests in the sacred Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi in the terrestrial realm. <\/p>\n

Although caution should be exercised when earmarking a timeline in the mythology recorded in the Kojiki <\/em>and Nihon Shoki,<\/em> it isclear that the ‘stage’ of the spiritual worlds are different even in the same mythology concerning Takemikazuchi and the sword\u2014such as the myth of the “Relinquishing of the Land”, and the tale of Jimmu’s “Subjugation of the East”.[7]<\/sup><\/a> For instance, the Kojiki<\/em> consists of three volumes, and the first is mainly concerned with myths relating to the earliest mythical era, or age of the kami<\/em>. However, the ensuing volumes focus on legends pertaining to the generations of successive emperors in the historical eras thereafter. <\/p>\n

The “Relinquishment of the Land” is one such myth that is set in the mythical age, and the tale of “Jimmu’s Subjugation of the East”, which features at the very beginning of the second volume of the Kojiki<\/em>, is set right on the cusp of both the mythical and historical ages. This difference is demonstrated in this behaviour of Takemikazuchi. In the myth of the “Relinquishment of the Land”, Takemikazuchi descended from the heavens to the earth; however, in the tale of “Jimmu’s Subjugation of the East”, he did not. This is not an issue of Takemikazuchi’s lack of commitment, but rather, it is a case of the difference in the positioning of the spiritual plains in the myth. In the mythical age, the boundaries between each realm are yet to be clearly defined, and kami<\/em> moved freely between the heavens and the earth. <\/p>\n

As time progressed, the stages changed, and the distinction between the realms became distinct to a point where even the gods did not move between each world. This was the ‘stage’ of the spiritual realm in the tale of “Jimmu’s Subjugation of the East”. In other words, even if Takemikazuchi wanted to descend to the earth as he had done before, the lines had been drawn. Nevertheless, the sacred sword could be sent in his place, something that further demonstrates the sacredness of the sword.<\/em><\/p>\n

One more important point in this tale is that Jimmu did not actually swing the sword to defeat the evil kami<\/em>. Rather, it was through the sword that the divine power of Takemikazuchi magically manifested to eliminate the evil.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a> See Yuasa Yasuo, Ki, Shu<\/em>gy<\/em>\u014d<\/em>, Shintai<\/em>, Hirakawa Shuppan (1986) and Nihonjin no S<\/em>h<\/em>\u016b<\/em>ky<\/em>\u014d<\/em>Ishiki, <\/em>Meicyo Kankokai (1988)<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a> Prominent examples include the Heih\u014d Jikansh\u014d<\/em> scroll of the Shint\u014d-ry\u016b school of kenjutsu<\/em> (Otsuki Sekihei, thirteenth year of Temp\u014d, 1842) and the \u201cJigen-ry\u016b Kikigaki Kikkin-roku<\/em>\u201d scroll of Jigen-ry\u016b kenjutsu<\/em> (Kubo Shichibee Kinoyukihide, first year of Temmei, 1781). Although not a scroll of bugei<\/em> scroll, the text \u201cHonch\u014d Bugei Sh\u014dden<\/em>\u201d (Hinatsu Yosuke Shigetaka, fourth year of Sh\u014dtoku, 1714) chronicles the origins of various martial art schools. It states that as the origin of kenjutsu<\/em> is to be found in the myth of the \u201cRelinquishment of the Land\u201d \u201cLegends surrounding the sword date back to the divine act performed by the deities Takemikazuchi-no-Mikoto and Futsunushi-no-Mikoto when they thrust the hilt of their ten-hand long swords into the ground and sat on their points.\u201d <\/p>\n

[3]<\/a> See T\u014dd\u014d Akiyasu, Bu no Kanji Bun no Kanji<\/em>, Tokuma Shoten(1977)<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> Ueda Masaaki, Nippon no Shinwa<\/em>, Iwanami Shoten (1987)
\n Yoshii Iwao, Tenn\u014d no Keifu to Shinwa, Hanawa shobo (1976)<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a> Sakai Toshinobu, Nippon Seishin-shi toshite no T\u014dken-kan<\/em>, Daiichi Shobo (2005) and \u201c<\/em>T\u014dken no rekishi to shis\u014d\u201d 1\u2013 24 Gekkan Bud\u014d<\/em>, Nippon Bud\u014dkan, April 2009 \u2013 March 2011<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a> A deliberate distinction is made between the age of the gods (with the term \u201cmyth\u201d) and the age of humans (with the term \u201ctale\u201d). Nevertheless, in the case of the \u201ctales\u201d of Emperor Jimmu there are still strong references made to the kami<\/em>, and they maintain a clear mythological component. <\/p>\n

[7]<\/a> This line of thinking was largely influenced by the suggestions of Yuasa Yasuo’s Rekishi to Shinwa no Shinrigaku<\/em>, Shisaku Sha (1984).<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Sacred Sword\u2014The Emergence of Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi<\/h4>\n

In discussions concerning Japanese mythology, there are said to be two ancient and sacred swords of significance. The first is the aforementioned Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi, and the other is the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. Incidentally, there are texts that consider the Totsuka-no-Tsurugi as the third sacred sword of significance, however this is incorrect. Totsuka-no-Tsurugi actually refers toa splendid sword with blade ten-fists long, and is not the name of a specific sword per se.      <\/p>\n

The origin of the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi is found in the myth of Yamata-no-\u014crochi. To summarise the main points of this myth, the kami <\/em>Susan\u014d descended from Takamagahara and travelled to the river Hi in the province of Izumo where he comes across a young maiden sitting between a tearful elderly couple at the head-waters of the river. Inquiring about their sorrow, he was told that each year Yamata-no-Orochi, an eight-headed serpent, comes to devour one of their daughters, and is returning to take away another soon. On the premise that he can marry the girl, Kushinada-hime, Susan\u014d promises that he will destroy the monster. <\/p>\n

A very strong brew of sake<\/em> is prepared and left out for the serpent to consume. <\/em>The serpent drinks the brew and becomes drowsy, at which point Susan\u014d uses his Totsuka-no-Tsurugi (ten-fist long sword) to slice it up into little pieces. As Susan\u014d cut into one of the monster’s eight tails, the blade of his sword cracks. Puzzled, Susan\u014d continued to cut up the tail, until he came across a truly divine sword within. The sword he had found was known as Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi, but was later renamed Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. Susan\u014d believed this sword to be divine, and he handed it to Amaterasu \u014cmikami in the heavenly realm. These are the main points of the myth. <\/p>\n

Generally this myth is appreciated for its princess and dragon theme. It is like a Perseus and Andromeda type portrayal of a hero slaying a monster, thereby rescuing and then wedding the damsel in distress. However in this case I would like to examine this myth in line with the theme of this article. <\/p>\n

Firstly, the river that provides the setting for this tale is the Hii River in the province of Izumo \u2013 a raging river that is said to have burst its banks many times in the past. Yamata-no-Orochi could be symbolic of the ferocious spirit of river, and his unusual appearance of eight heads and eight tails could represent the numerous junctions and forks in the river. The river was a wild kami<\/em>, and the object of much fear. As the monster returned every year to devour another maiden, this state of affairs suggests that the people of this region often fell victim to the torrid river. Just as was the case with the fear felt towards the wild kami<\/em> of fire, civilisation was able to advance as this kami<\/em> was tamed. Accordingly, the sword which is symbolic of an advancing civilisation is used to kill the root of this fear.              <\/p>\n

The Hii River has long been known for its high quality of iron sand. Even today, in a place called Yokota situated upstream, iron manufacturers make the raw material for the manufacture of swords. In this context, this myth explains that from the serpent Yamata-no-Orochi, a symbol of the Hii River, a sacred sword emerges in the terrestrial realm which was then presented to the heavens.  <\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

The Three Imperial Regalia <\/h4>\n

Following its appearance in the Myth of Yamata-no-Orochi, the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi then reappears as one of the three Imperial Regalia in the myth of the “Decent to Earth by the Grandson of the Amaterasu \u014cmikami”. As discussed previously, due to Takemikazuchi’s dispatch, the land was claimed and the grandchild of Amaterasu, Ho-no-ninigi (also known as Ninigi-no-Mikoto), was finally able to descend to the terrestrial realm to rule. In this story, Amaterasu \u014cmikami bestows on her grandson the Yata-no-Kagami (the eight-pan mirror), Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi (the Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi), and the Yasakani-no-Magatama (the string of jewels); three treasures as evidence of his sovereign power on earth. These items became the three Imperial Regalia. <\/p>\n

The myth of the “Decent of the Grandson of Amaterasu \u014cmikami” speaks of the nobility of the emperor in terms of his direct lineage with the deity, and therefore has always contained a strong political nuance. As a result, it is conceivable that many parts of this myth have been modified. For instance, of the many theories put forward, some suggest that the initial Imperial Regalia only included the sword and the mirror, or that the sword itself was different to the one featured in the myth of Yamata-no-Orochi. Although the scope of this article does not allow for a detailed investigation of all of these theories, I would like to touch on the essential elements of the Regalia that have been handed down through each generation of emperors. <\/p>\n

In order to prevent disaster and receive blessings for a good harvest, ancient people held festivals to pray and communicate with the gods in which shamans mediated between the two worlds. The shamans who used magic held considerable sway in society. Watsuji Tetsur\u014d stated that the unification of ancient Japan was accomplished via “rituals of control”.[8]<\/sup><\/a> The most powerful user of magical powers in governance was the emperor. The magical implements used by the emperor when communicating with the kami<\/em> were a mirror, a sword, and beads, the three items that became associated with imperial ascendancy as the Imperial Regalia. <\/p>\n

The myth of the “Decent of the Grandson of Amaterasu” tells of the powerful authority of the deity, and her influence on matters in actual society. The divine sword from the celestial high plain in the myth was utilised by the emperor as a magical implement in his role as a necromancer, and that is what I will focus on here.  <\/p>\n

The three Imperial Regalia are not simply an ancient story. Through a myriad processes, even today, they function as a symbol of imperial ascendancy.[9]<\/sup><\/a> A recent example was after the passing of the Sh\u014dwa emperor, the Regalia were ceremonially transferred during the coronation of the next emperor. The myth of the “Decent of the Grandson of Amaterasu” provides what is usually considered the basis for the sacred nature of the Regalia in modern times. <\/p>\n

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Iku-tachi and Iku-yumiya<\/h4>\n

In the beginning, before the grandchild of Amaterasu descended to the terrestrial plain, Ashihara-no-Nakatsu-Kuni, it was ruled by the earthly kami<\/em> \u014ckuni-nushi. However, \u014ckuni-nushi had to endure many trials in the underworld to reach this position. The myth that describes these events is the myth of the “Underworld” (Ne-no-Kuni).  <\/p>\n

Also known as \u014cnamuchi, \u014ckuni-nushi was killed twice over by his many jealous sibling Yasogami, and it was his mother who resuscitated him. In order to escape the persecution of the Yasogami, he retreated to the underworld known as Ne-no-Kuni. This realm was controlled by Susan\u014d, but upon his arrival, \u014cnamuchi falls in love with Susan\u014d’s daughter Suseribime. \u014cnamuchi is tested by being made to sleep in a rooms filled with snakes, centipedes, and hornets. With the help of Suseribime, he was able to overcome his ordeals through the use of magic.[10]<\/sup><\/a> \u014cnamuchi then underwent further, harsher tribulations, but was able to prevail. Taking advantage of an opportunity while Susan\u014d slept, \u014cnamuchi snatches the magical treasures of Ne-no-Kuni including the Iku-tachi sword and the Iku-yumiya bow and arrows, and the Ame-no-Norigoto(a stringed instrument given to Suseribime by her father). Then, together with Suseribime he fled the underworld. When Susan\u014d awoke, he is said to have called out to \u014cnamuchi; “use the sword of life and the bow and arrow of life, and expel your sibling the Yasogami. Then you will be known as \u014ckuni-nushi, the ruler of the terrestrial world”. \u014cnamuchi did exactly that, and became the ruler known as \u014ckuni-nushi, or the king of a great land.<\/p>\n

The Ame-no-Norigoto that Ohonamuchi took from Susan\u014d was a tool of magic, possession of which would aid in the foretelling of prophesies. The Iku-tachi and the Iku-yumiya were also mystical tools carried by a ruler, and similar to the three imperial regalia, acted as a symbol of a ruler’s status. Over and above all, depictions of this whole incident are extremely mystical in nature. As such, it is important to emphasise as with the yumiya<\/em> (bow and arrow) and the tachi<\/em>,[11]<\/sup><\/a> these were magical tools that were used to dispel evil gods such as Yasogami. <\/p>\n

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The Bow and Arrow from the Heavens<\/h4>\n

Another noteworthy story when discussing the bow and arrow is the myth of Ame-no-Wakahiko. The myth of the “Relinquishment of the Land” with Takemikazuchi has already been covered in this article, but there is a prelude to this story. Prior sending Takemikazuchi to the terrestrial realm, Amaterasu \u014cmikami had already dispatched two other messengers\u2014both of whom were unsuccessful. The first, Ama-no-Hohi, was wooed by \u014ckuni-nushi and failed to return for three years. The second was Ame-no-Wakahiko, and the following is a description of that myth.  <\/p>\n

As Ame-no-Wakahiko is chosen by Amaterasu \u014cmikami to be the second messenger to descend to the terrestrial realm, Amaterasu presents Ame-no-Wakahiko with the bow known as Ame-no-Makako, and the arrow known as Ame-no-Haha[12]<\/sup><\/a>. Upon his descent, Ame-no-Wakahiko marries \u014ckuni-nushi’s daughter, Shitateruhime, and fails to report back for eight years. In order to find out what was happening down there, Amaterasu dispatches a green pheasant known as Nakime. Using the bow and arrow he was gifted by Amaterasu, Ame-no-Wakahiko kills the pheasant.   <\/p>\n

The arrow penetrated the pheasant’s chest, and landed back in heaven in front of the kami<\/em>. When the kami<\/em> saw the blood on the arrow, they remarked “this is the arrow we gave on Ame-no-Wakahiko\u2026 if he was following orders and this arrow landed here after he released it to kill an evil kami<\/em>, then its return will miss him. Yet, if this was an act committed with a treasonous mind, may our arrow smite him.” With that, the arrow was released back through the hole it had made, and the sleeping Ame-no-Wakahiko was hit in the chest and died.       <\/p>\n

This tale has two significant components. The first relates to the important role of descending to the terrestrial realm, and receiving of the bow and arrow as symbolic of this duty and status. A similar line of thought concerning the three sacred regalia is contained in the myth of the “Decent of the Grandson of Amaterasu”. <\/p>\n

The other relates to the depiction of the death of the treasonous Ame-no-Wakahiko by an arrow that was released in return from the heavens. This is referred to as the magic art of ‘ukei’<\/em>. It is a type of divination where, generally, one is told “if this is the case, this will happen.” Or, having made a vow, divine will and or the truth will be foretold.[13]<\/sup><\/a> The kami<\/em> in heaven exclaim that if Ame-no-Wakahiko is pure of heart he will not be struck down, but if he harboured treasonous intent, he would be killed \u2013 a typical example of ukei<\/em> divination. Ame-no-Wakahiko was perfidious, and this brought his ultimate demise. One further point to note is that in the magic art of ukei,<\/em> an arrow is believed to have the power to exorcize evil. <\/p>\n

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The Red Lacquered Arrow<\/h4>\n

Of the ancient myths concerning arrows, the “Red Lacquered Arrow” is another story that deserves attention. First, the story recorded in the Kojiki<\/em> as the “Selection of Jimmu’s Empress” about Isukeyori-hime, the woman who became emperor Jimmu’s wife. <\/p>\n

The kami<\/em> \u014cmono-nushi fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Seyadatara-hime. \u014cmono-nushi impregnated the maiden by transforming himself into a red lacquered arrow, and striking her in the genitals as she relieved herself beside a stream. Startled, Seyadatara-hime took the arrow home with her and placed it near her bed, at which point the arrow transformed into a handsome man. They then married and conceived a child named Isukeyori-hime, who would later become the consort of Emperor Jimmu.  <\/p>\n

There is another story with a similar theme\u2014the Kamo legend\u2014which is recoded in the Yamashiro-no Kuni F<\/em>\u016b<\/em>doki. <\/em>One day, as Tamayori-hime played in a small stream, a red lacquered arrow floated towards her on the water. She took the arrow home and set it down. She later fell pregnant and gave birth to a boy. The red lacquered arrow was actually an incarnation Hono-Ikazuchi-no-Kami, the deity of fire and thunder. <\/p>\n

Both of these tales \u2013 myths of the ninuriya<\/em> (the red lacquered arrow)\u2014describe a red lacquered arrow floating down a stream, which then impregnates a maiden with the child of a kami.<\/em> These arrows are avatars for kami<\/em>. Similar to Tamemikazuchi becoming one with the sword (Futsu-no-Mitama-no-Tsurugi) in the myth of the “Relinquishment of the Land”, the kami <\/em>in these cases are depicted as arrows.    <\/p>\n

Another characteristic of these myths is that the arrows which were an embodiment of the kami<\/em> did not descend from the heavens as the tsurugi<\/em> sword did. Rather, they floated down the river. Therefore, the kami<\/em> of these myths are not of the heavenly realm, but are from the parallel plain, and as such, these stories are indicative of the mythology of ancient Japan before the perception of the worlds was altered to view kami<\/em> as positioned vertically above. <\/p>\n

Lastly, I would like to consider the use of the arrow itself. The ninuriya<\/em> arrow is representative of lightning, vitality, and manhood; however it also harnessed an even more important attribute. The arrows in question are lacquered a vermillion colour. This colour signifies blood, and was considered to be highly magical. The ninuriya<\/em> arrow had the mystical ability to create children of kami<\/em>, and was also an implement with the power to exorcize evil spirits. Certainly there is a link between this and the myth of Ame-no-Wakahiko, where the bloodied arrow killed Ame-no-Wakahiko for being an evil kami<\/em>. <\/p>\n

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Conclusion<\/h4>\n

This article looked at the role of bu<\/em> in Japanese mythology, and established that the sword and arrows were used as magical tools when conducting bu <\/em>as a dance. These items were also depicted in mythology as weapons; however it is improbable that they were utilised as weapons with same level of refined skill achieved later on. As such there is little ideological depth afforded to this aspect of their use.   <\/p>\n

Due to the sacredness of the mystical sword, and bow and arrow, it can be concluded that they are closely associated with the kami<\/em>. The most obvious depictions of this can be seen in the myths of the “Relinquishment of the Land”, and the “Red Lacquered Arrow”, where the kami<\/em> themselves become one with the sword and arrow. Furthermore, when the kami<\/em> were in different spiritual realms, the sword and arrow moved back and forwards between the heavens and the earth allowing a connection to be established. Therefore, due to this mystical nature, the (magic) ability to use the sword and the arrow would act as a symbol of status. A major trait of magic in bu<\/em> was that it enabled the administrator to borrow the power of the kami<\/em> to dispel evil. This is what I term the “magic of hekija<\/em>” (exorcising of evil spirits).[14]<\/sup><\/a>
\n \u3000
\n All of these mythical images suggest a kind of ‘spiritual genetics’ which continued and influenced the development of Japanese spiritual outlooks, and greatly impacted the mind and thought of the bushi.<\/em> The magic of hekija<\/em> that utilised the sword and the bow and arrow are, in ancient mythology, directed at an peripheral evil. This is due to the fact that, in ancient Japanese society, it was generally the peripheral that surpassed human intelligence and understanding. However, as Japanese society shifted from the ancient into the historical age, and civilisation evolved, the interpretation of bu<\/em> in the age of the warrior transformed into meaning “advancing on foot with weapons in hand”. Constantly facing their mortality, bushi<\/em> realised that the truly impenetrable difficulties of life lay within themselves. It was through bu<\/em> for dispelling evil that they attempted to solve problems. This is why the bushi<\/em> would ensure that their swords \u2013 the symbol of theirstatus as warriors\u2014were polished and spotless. They believed that this was a reflection of their mind and soul, and with a sense of heavenly intervention, they could purify their spirit. <\/p>\n

Leading into peaceful times of the modern era, where the bushi<\/em> mantra of bu<\/em> evolved into the ideal “to stop fighting”, bu<\/em> took on a new function separated from combat which entailed a more moral and ethical sense of spirituality. Here, further discussion is required concerning the beliefs of the tsurugi<\/em> and their projection onto the nihont<\/em>\u014d<\/em>, but this will discussed in a separate article. Suffice it to say, according to the mythological image, bushi<\/em> initially used the perceived magical power of the sword to conceptually rid themselves of an “evil heart and mind”. The same could be said of the bow and arrow. This was a major characteristic of the bushi<\/em> in Japanese spiritual history. <\/p>\n

[8]<\/a>Watsuji Tetsur\u014d, Nippon Seishin-shi K<\/em>enky<\/em>\u016b<\/em> , Iwanami shoten(1996)<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a>The circumstances surrounding the three imperial regalia are complicated, but nowadays are usually explained in the following terms: <\/p>\n